@article {604,
	title = {Land-use by immigrant Baoul{\'e} farmers in the Ta{\"\i} region, South-west C{\^o}te d{\textquoteright}Ivoire (Ivory Coast)},
	journal = {Agroforestry Systems},
	volume = {11},
	year = {1990},
	month = {1990},
	pages = {101-123},
	abstract = {<p>This paper discusses the cropping system of immigrant Baoul{\'e} farmers in the rain-forest area of South-west C{\^o}te d\&$\#$39;Ivoire (Ivory Coast). The area harbours one of the last substantial rain-forest reserves of humid West Africa. Part of it is known as Ta{\"\i} National Park, and has been adopted as one of UNESCO\&$\#$39;s Man and Biosphere Programme areas. The park area is threatened by farmers in search of land. Soils in the area typically show a low intrinsic nutrient content (particularly phosphorus and potassium), low pH values, a low CEC, and, locally, high levels of gravel. In the Baoul{\'e} cropping system fields are kept under perennial crops, mainly cacao, after having been used for food crop cultivation during the first two years. Yam, the most important food crop is grown on mounds. Next to the inherent poverty of the soil, this cropping technique, which disrupts the structure of the top soil is seen as one of the causes for low yields of cocoa on Baoul{\'e} farms in the area. Yields per ha amount to c. 60\% of that of the national average. The conclusion is that the Baoul{\'e} agricultural production system is ill-adapted to the local ecosystem. Measures to improve adaptation include: Introduction of crop species adapted to adverse soil conditions (e.g. rubber, oilpalm), to buffer cacao plantations through planting of shade trees, to apply fertilisers, and to make use of biological nitrogen-fixation. Generally, the remedies proposed involve investments in terms of cash and labour on the part of the farmers. It is argued that farmers will not change their current cropping practices as long as there is forested land in the vicinity. The presence of the Ta{\"\i} forest, c. 300.000 ha of virgin rain-forest, impedes the process of change towards more intensive land-use practices.</p>},
	keywords = {agriculture, cacao, Humid C{\^o}te d{\textquoteright}Ivoire, Ivory Coast, land shortage, soil fertility, transition shifting cultivation, yams},
	doi = {10.1007/BF00838724},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00838724},
	author = {Arnoud Budelman and Peter M. Zander}
}
@article {727,
	title = {Yams and megapode mounds in the lowland rain forest of Papua New Guinea},
	journal = {Human Ecology},
	volume = {18},
	year = {1990},
	month = {June 1990},
	pages = {177-185},
	abstract = {Kubo people of Papua New Guinea sometimes grew Dioscorea yams in mounds of forest litter that were made as egg-incubation sites by birds (Megapodiidae). The small yam plots were included within larger banana gardens and, in the latter, it was yams, not bananas, that took precedence in the gardening decisions of people. The technique would be viable in the absence of a larger garden. It is interpreted as an expression of an ancient pattern of small-scale plant domestication.},
	keywords = {intercropping, Kubo, megapodes, Papua New Guinea, plant domestication, rainforests, yams},
	doi = {10.1007/BF00889181},
	url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/4602964},
	author = {Peter D. Dwyer and Monica Minnegal}
}
@article {580,
	title = {IITA: Sustainable systems},
	journal = {African Farming},
	year = {1987},
	month = {Sept/Oct 1987},
	pages = {50-51},
	abstract = {Bede Nwoye Okigbo, Deputy Director General of International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) for the last ten years, is one of those rare human beings who has a rich professional life perfectly integrated with his own personality. Several societies and academies have enrolled his talents. His field of specialization is crop ecology and production, but it is hard to find any area of agriculture or botany where Okigbo{\textquoteright}s profound insight or experience in not equally valid. In this interview, Dr. Okigbo explains how research being carried out at IITA is helping Africa to feed itself.},
	keywords = {agricultural extension, agroforestry, alley cropping, barley, cassava, cereal food imports, cereals, cowpeas, farming systems research , food aid, green revolution, indigenous crops, maize, millet, plantains, rice, seed yam, seeds, soils, sorghum, strategic planning study, sustainable agriculture, wheat, yams},
	author = {Anonymous}
}
@inbook {895,
	title = {Machiguenga Gardens},
	booktitle = {Adaptive responses of native Amazonians},
	year = {1983},
	note = {Chapter 2},
	month = {1983},
	pages = {29-63},
	publisher = {Academic Press},
	organization = {Academic Press},
	address = {New York},
	abstract = {The present description concerns shifting cultivation among the Machiguenga, Native American inhabitants of the tropical rainforest of the Upper Amazon, specifically, a community on the Kompiroshiato River, a tributary of the Urubamba River in the department of Cuzco, Peru. The language is of the Arawakan family, and is closely allied to that of the Amuesha, Campa, and Piro Indians, who also inhabit the montana of Southeastern Peru. As is typical of the montana region, Machiguenga settlements vary from single families to small hamlets of related families located on a stream that provides clean water for household needs, near a river suitable for fishing, and with abundant forest for hunting and from which gardens are cleared. Population density is 0.3 persons/km2. The Machiguenga spend nearly as much time procuring wild foods as they do cultivating their gardens, but it is from their gardens that the vast bulk of their food derives, including a great overproduction of starchy tubers for food security under isolated and vulnerable living conditions. (author)},
	keywords = {cacao, coffee, forest dwellers, horticulture, hunter-gatherer, labor, maize, manioc, Native Americans, rainforests, shifting cultivation, slash and burn, soils, South America, weeds, women, yams},
	url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8827760},
	author = {Allen Johnson},
	editor = {Raymond B. Hames and William T. Vickers}
}
@article {618,
	title = {Market structure and social organization in a Ghanaian marketing system},
	journal = {American Ethnologist},
	volume = {6},
	year = {1979},
	month = {November 1979},
	pages = {682-701},
	abstract = {<p>Models of market structure, borrowed from industrial organization economists, are employed to analyze the relationship between social organization and economic conditions in a Ghanaian marketing system. Comparative analysis of vegetable, fish, and yam marketing identifies three distinct modes of social organization\&nbsp;\&mdash; pure competition, ethnic monopolization, and associational monopolization \&mdash; and explains differences in social patterns in terms of underlying supply and distribution structures.</p>},
	keywords = {Africa, associational monopolization, economics, ethnic monopolization, fish, Ghana, market system, marketing, pure competition, social organization, social patterns, vegetables, yams},
	url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/643564},
	author = {Brian Schwimmer}
}
