@article {696, title = {The T{\textquoteright}OLCHE{\textquoteright}, a Maya system of communally managed forest belts: The causes and consequences of its disappearance}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {18}, year = {1992}, month = {May 1992}, pages = {149-177}, abstract = {

The T\&$\#$39;OLCHE\&$\#$39; is a protected forest belt about 10\–20 m wide that runs through the Mayan landscape on the limits of the maize fields of the farmers. This study explores its traditional use and management and traces how it has changed in the last 30 years in the study village in Yucat{\'a}n, Mexico. A major change is in its extent; little remains of the 10\–20\% of the area it occupied in the past. Two of the causes of this are identified as being a credit programme of the local bank and 1973 state legislation concerning cattle. The causes and consequences of this decline are discussed in relation with other farmer-perceived changes in overall landuse, including a fall in maize yields. The ecological roles of the T\&$\#$39;OLCHE\&$\#$39; are examined. It is argued that the T\&$\#$39;OLCHE\&$\#$39; plays an essential role in the regeneration of the fallow vegetation and in the maintenance of biological diversity. The case of the T\&$\#$39;OLCHE\&$\#$39; suggests the need for a diversified and politicized look on Common Property Resource Management.

}, keywords = {common property management, fallow regeneration, Maya, shelterbelts, shifting cultivation, traditional landuse}, doi = {10.1007/BF00115409}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00115409}, author = {G. G. A. Remmers and H. De Koeijer} } @article {499, title = {A diagnostic survey of shifting cultivation in northern Laos: Targeting research to improve sustainability and productivity}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {13}, year = {1991}, month = {February 1991}, pages = {95-109}, abstract = {About 25\% of Laos{\textquoteright} four million people practise shifting cultivation (mainly of rice) on a third of the country{\textquoteright}s cropped area. Official policy is to eliminate shifting cultivation by the year 2000. Diagnostic surveys of shifting cultivation were conducted in Luang Prabang and Oudomsay Provinces in northern Laos to understand the practice from a farmer{\textquoteright}s perspective, to observe fields, and to identify and give priority to problems and research to address problems. Weeds, low and possibly declining soil fertility, intensification of the cropping cycle, rats (plus birds, wild pigs), and insects lowered rice yields or reduced system sustainability. The forest ecosystem has been degraded by logging, burning, and rice monocropping; and potentials for environmental rehabilitation through natural succession are minimal. Farmers cannot adopt high labor and cash cost innovations; and improved fallow is needed as an intermediate step prior to crop diversification, adoption of agroforestry technologies, and sedentary agriculture. (author)}, keywords = {agriculture, deforestation, forestry, government policy, improved fallow, shifting cultivation, sustainability, weeds}, doi = {10.1007/BF00140235}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00140235}, author = {S. Fujisaka} } @inbook {883, title = {Indigenous resource exploitation}, booktitle = {Ecology and Land Management in Amazonia}, year = {1990}, note = {Chapter 4}, month = {1990}, pages = {62-85}, publisher = {Belhaven Press}, organization = {Belhaven Press}, address = {New York/London}, abstract = {This document looks at various forms of indigenous resource exploitation in the Amazon basin. It details plant and animal (both wild and cultivated) use in the forest, savannas, and wetlands by numerous tribes. European influence is also briefly discussed.}, keywords = {Amazon River region, American Indians, Andoke, anteater, aquatic resources, archaeology, Brazil, Colombia, crop production, environmental policy, fishing, food sources, Guyana, hunter-gatherer, maize, manioc, Native Americans, natural resource conservation, nutrition, Piaroa, polyculture, rainforests, shifting cultivation, South America, swiddens, timber , tubers, Uanano, Venezuela, wetlands, Witoto, Yanomamo}, isbn = {1-85293-118-3; 978-1-85293-118-6}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/21195403}, author = {Michael J. Eden} } @article {424, title = {Research in {\textquoteright}virgin{\textquoteright} Amazon uncovers complex farming}, year = {1990}, note = {Science Times (Section C)}, month = {April 3, 1990}, pages = {C1, C12}, address = {New York}, abstract = {Techniques let Indians harvest the jungle without destroying it.}, keywords = {Brazil, Indians, Kayapo, rainforests, shifting cultivation}, url = {http://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/03/science/research-in-virgin-amazon-uncovers-complex-farming.html?pagewanted=all\&src=pm}, author = {William K. Stevens} } @inbook {850, title = {Agricultural systems on the floodplains of the Peruvian Amazon}, booktitle = {Fragile lands of Latin America: Strategies for sustainable development}, series = {Westview special studies in social, political, and economic development}, year = {1989}, note = {Chapter 5}, month = {1989}, pages = {75-100}, publisher = {Westview Press}, organization = {Westview Press}, address = {Boulder, CO}, abstract = {The "development" of Amazonia continues unabated. Governments sharing the basin are promoting the occupation of the region for reasons that range from land pressures occasioned by inequitable land tenure systems or population pressure, expansion of food and fiber production to meet domestic needs or foreign exchange earnings, to exploitation of natural resources. Development models, however, have been based on those extraneous to the region. This chapter explores those models and systems. (author)}, keywords = {agroforestry, American Indians, climate, fallow, flora, local knowledge, Native Americans, Peru, rainfall, river, shifting cultivation, South America, swiddens}, isbn = {0-8133-7705-6}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/18351601}, author = {M{\'a}rio Hiraoka}, editor = {John O. Browder} } @book {337, title = {Glossary of selected terms in sustainable agriculture}, series = {Gatekeeper Series no. SA6}, year = {1988}, month = {August 1988}, pages = {19}, publisher = {International Institute for Environment and Development, Sustainable Agriculture Programme}, organization = {International Institute for Environment and Development, Sustainable Agriculture Programme}, address = {London; Washington, DC}, abstract = {A glossary of selected terms in sustainable agriculture}, keywords = {agroecological zoning, agroecosystem zoning, agroecosystems, agroforestry, alley cropping, appropriate technology and intermediate technology, bioenergy, biomass, carrying capacity, cash crops, common property resources, community forestry, conservation farming, desertification, export crops, farmer participatory research, farming systems research , food crops, genetic preservation, integrated pest management, integrated rural development, land degradation, minimum tillage, multiple cropping, multipurpose trees, open access resources, pastoralism, range management, rapid rural appraisal, regenerative farming, remote sensing, share cropping, shifting cultivation, social forestry, subsistence agriculture, sustainable development, tragedy of the commons, transhumance}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/19531919}, author = {Jennifer A. McCracken and Jules N. Pretty} } @inbook {889, title = {Introduction: The Bora agroforestry project}, booktitle = {Swidden-fallow agroforestry in the Peruvian Amazon}, series = {Advances in economic botany no. 5}, year = {1987}, note = {Also see 91-01916}, month = {January 1988}, pages = {1-7}, publisher = {New York Botanical Garden}, organization = {New York Botanical Garden}, address = {Bronx, NY}, abstract = {The Bora Agroforestry Project carried out research on swidden-fallow management in the Bora Indian Village of Brillo Nuevo in the northeast Peruvian Amazon. Young fallow fields (up to ten years old) and old fallow fields (from 10-35 years old) were examined in terms of composition, structure, and utility.}, keywords = {ethnobotany, shifting cultivation}, isbn = {0-89327-325-2; 978-0-89327-325-5}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/17106758}, author = {William M. Denevan and Christine Padoch}, editor = {William M. Denevan and Christine Padoch} } @article {840, title = {The implications of farming systems analysis for land titling in the area of Quimistan, Santa Barbara, Honduras}, year = {1986}, note = {CIKARD copy is a draft}, month = {January 1986}, institution = {Institute for Environmental Studies, Land Tenure Center}, address = {University of Wisconsin-Madison}, abstract = {

This document summarizes a farming systems analysis carried out in the region of Quimistan, Department of Santa Barbara, Honduras, during January 1986. The work was done as a part of the Land Tenure Center\&$\#$39;s evaluation of the Honduran Land Titling Project. Our objectives were to characterize the agricultural systems and land use practices in the area, to identify problems and constraints related to land use, and to assess actual and potential impacts of the land titling project on agriculture in the region. The study is comprised of two parts:

  1. an agro-ecological characterization of the zone and
  2. detailed case studies of eight farming systems.
}, keywords = {agroforestry, crop rotation, fallow, fertilizer, firewood, fuelwood, herbicide, land tenure, manure, peasant community, pesticides, shifting cultivation, slash and burn, trees, tropical forests}, author = {Becky J. Brown and Alexander Coles} } @article {520, title = {Babassu palm in the agroforestry systems in Brazil{\textquoteright}s mid-north region}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {3}, year = {1985}, month = {September 1985}, pages = {275-295}, abstract = {Babassu palms (Orbignya spp.) cover nearly 200,000 km2 in Brazil, providing cash income, fuel, fibre, edible oil and food to a large number of tenant farm households. Babassu is closely integrated within pastoral and shifting cultivation systems of Mid-North Brazil. In pastures, babassu provides shade for cattle, aids soil moisture retention, produces organic matter, generates supplementary farm income at little cost, and offers year-round employment. On the other hand, the persistence of juvenile palms reduces pasture grass productivity due to plant competition, and therefore there is a trend to eradicate babassu through clearcutting and understorey suppression. At moderate densities of less than 100 individuals per ha, mature babassu palms in cropland do not appear to harm crop productivity. In such cases, palms are thinned and leaves of the remaining ones are cut back, supplying fuel for the burn and nutrients to the soil. However, reduced fallow cycles due to pasture conversion threaten babassu as well as crop productivity.}, keywords = {Babassu palm, charcoal , land tenure, northeast Brazil, Orbignya, Palmae, pasture expansion, shifting cultivation, vegetable oil}, doi = {10.1007/BF00046960}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00046960}, author = {P. H. May and Anthony B. Anderson and J. M. F. Fraz{\~a}o and M. J. Balick} } @book {302, title = {Changes in shifting cultivation in Africa: Seven case studies}, series = {FAO Forestry Paper no. 50/1}, year = {1985}, month = {1985}, pages = {185}, publisher = {Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}, organization = {Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}, address = {Rome}, abstract = {Excerpts from following papers: The case of the CGOT Sector, Sedhiou (Casamance), Senegal: transformations of traditional agriculture after an unsuccessful large-scale operation for mechanized groundnut production in forest zones; Integrated Rural Development Project, Eastern Province, Sierra Leone; Development of ecological methods of upland farming in West Usambara Mountains, Tanzania; Smallholder plantation agriculture of immigrant Baoule farmers in southwestern Ivory Coast; Alternatives and improvements to shifting cultivation on the east coast of Madagascar; The modifications to traditional shifting cultivation brought about by the forest development project in the HADO area, Kondoa, Tanzania; Forestry and socio-economic aspects of modification of traditional shifting cultivation through the taungya system in the Subri area, Ghana.}, keywords = {agroforestry, shifting cultivation, traditional agriculture}, isbn = {92-5-102283-6 978-92-5-102283-2}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13803278}, author = {Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Forestry Department} } @article {545, title = {Dynamics of fallow successions and introduction of robusta coffee in shifting cultivation areas in the lowlands of Papua New Guinea}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {3}, year = {1985}, month = {September 1985}, pages = {227-238}, abstract = {The traditional shifting cultivation system in the lowlands of Papua New Guinea consists of mixed food crop gardens in which yams (Dioscorea spp.), bananas, taro (Colocasia esculenta) and sugarcane predominate. The cropping cycle is usually for 18 months, followed by a fallow cycle of up to 30 years. During the cropping cycle, two species of fruit trees, Pometia pinnata and Artocarpus altilis are also planted, the leaves of the former also being used as a mulch and green manure in yam cultivation. Fallow succession follows rather systematic patterns about which farmers have a thorough understanding. Robusta coffee, a cash-crop component, has been added to the system in some areas since the late 1950s. It is usually grown in permanent blocks, but is interplanted with Leucaena as shade. Food crops are planted in the establishment stage, bananas and Xantohosoma being retained even in mature coffee gardens. The system seems to be a potentially promising one. But very little quantitative information is available on the production and performance of the system and practically no systematic research has been undertaken. Since the Papua New Guinea fallow gardeners are willing to accept innovations, it will be appropriate and timely to undertake serious studies so that the system can be improved. A few items that merit immediate research attention are indicated. (author)}, keywords = {agroforestry, coffee, fallow successions, forestry, intercropping, Papua New Guinea, shifting cultivation}, doi = {10.1007/BF00046956}, url = {http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00046956}, author = {Bryant J. Allen} } @book {342, title = {Improved production systems as an alternative to shifting cultivation}, series = {FAO Soils Bulletin no. 53}, year = {1984}, month = {1984}, pages = {201}, publisher = {Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}, organization = {Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}, address = {Rome}, abstract = {Shifting cultivation, under its diverse forms of slash and burn systems, is a traditional method of cultivating tropical upland soils, mostly for subsistence purposes. During the rest or fallow periods intervening between crops, the natural fertility of the soil is restored for renewed utilization in a subsequent period of crop growth. This traditional system of cultivation is in ecological balance with the environment and does not irreversibly degrade the soil resource, provided a sufficient length of fallow is allowed for soil restoration.}, keywords = {agricultural systems, agroecology, agroforestry, alley cropping, appropriate technology and intermediate technology, climate, farming systems, horticulture, livestock, rainfall, research , shifting cultivation, soil management, watersheds}, isbn = {92-5-102121-X}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11418879}, author = {Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Soil Resources, Management and Conservation Service} } @article {697, title = {The Talun-Kebun system, a modified shifting cultivation, in West Java}, journal = {The Environmentalist}, volume = {4, Supplement 7}, year = {1984}, month = {1984}, pages = {96-98}, abstract = {

The talun is a man-made forest consisting of a mixture of economic tree species, usually with an undergrowth of a mixture of annual plants. It has a multistorey structure and gives good protection to the soil against the erosive forces of rain, as well as being a genetic resource. The talun is privately owned and on the average a family has 1 to 2 hectares.

In the talun a shifting cultivation is practised by rotating a garden, called the kebun, which is planted with a mixture of cash crops. The cycle of the rotation is about 8 years. The opening for the kebun is created by harvesting the trees and bamboo by clear or selective cutting and heavy pruning. Hence, the talun-kebun system is essentially shifting cultivation in a man-made forest. Because of the high economic returns, it is capable of carrying a high population density on a sustainable basis.

}, keywords = {Java, shifting cultivation}, doi = {10.1016/S0251-1088(84)90466-2}, url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0251108884904662}, author = {Otto Soemarwoto} } @article {585, title = {Indigenous agroforestry systems}, journal = {Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society}, volume = {11}, year = {1983}, month = {June-Sept. 1983}, pages = {149-174}, abstract = {Indigenous agroforestry is agroforestry that has long been practiced by cultural communities within the context of their traditional agricultural systems. It historically precedes experimental agroforestry as it is practiced by research scientists working in a Westernized system. Whereas "modern" agroforestry is still largely limited to experimental fields, indigenous agroforestry is practiced in real-life, ongoing enterprises within or adjacent to farmers{\textquoteright} fields. In this paper I will review these indigenous arrangements. (author)}, keywords = {agri-silvipasture, agroforestry, api-silviculture, aqua-silviculture, farming, field-and-groove systems, forestry, Philippines, shifting cultivation, silvipasture, swiddens, trees}, url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/29791792}, author = {Harold Olofson} } @article {600, title = {Karen agro-forestry: Processes, functions, and implications for socio-economic, demographic, and environmental change in northern Thailand}, journal = {Mountain Research and Development}, volume = {3}, year = {1983}, month = {November 1983}, pages = {326-337}, abstract = {

Agro-forestry uses trees in combination with non-tree crops to intensify land use in forested areas. Optimal use of agro-forestry in a development programme requires a thorough knowledge of traditional land ownership and use if the area\&$\#$39;s inhabitants are to be integrated successfully into the plan.

The Karen people, the largest highland minority group in Thailand, have traditionally used a conservative short cultivation-long fallow swidden system. Land resources are loosely held by the community, which depends heavily on reciprocal exchange labour to cultivate family farms, and volunteer labour for the communal tasks necessary to protect village lands from fire and other hazards. The swidden system resembles agro-forestry in that the farmers encourage forest regeneration by allowing regrowth from stumps and coppiced trees in cultivated fields, and by controlling fire in fallow swiddens. Trees are used for construction and domestic fuel, and to bring nutrients where they can be used (as ash) to fertilize rice and a wide variety of non-tree crops. Swiddens are cultivated with minimal disturbance to the soil. With low population density the system sustained a subsistence economy for hundreds of years without major environmental deterioration.

In recent years the system has been destabilized. Most development projects have not been integrated into existing land-use systems.

Agro-forestry techniques have not generally been applied to increase swidden productivity. Extensive reforestation projects in swidden land areas have reduced the amount of land available to Karens at the same time as population has grown due to decline in mortality and migration into the hills. Commercialization of the subsistence economy has led to a decline in the availability of reciprocal exchange labour. Increased demand for forest resources has led to decrease in security of tenure for swiddens and other communally held land. Karens are now placing greater emphasis on irrigated fields, while the swidden system has tended to deteriorate, with more frequent cultivation and shorter fallow, and less adequate control of fire.

L\&$\#$39;agro-foresterie consid{\`e}re les arbres comme une ressource au m{\^e}me titre que d\&$\#$39;autres plantes cultiv{\'e}es, pour permettre d\&$\#$39;intensifier l\&$\#$39;exploitation du sol dans les r{\'e}gions foresti{\`e}res. L\&$\#$39;utilisation optimale de l\&$\#$39;agro-foresteire dans le cadre d\&$\#$39;un programme de d{\'e}veloppement n{\'e}c{\'e}ssite une connaissance profonde des modes traditionnels affectant la propri{\'e}t{\'e} et l\&$\#$39;utilisation des terres, si l\&$\#$39;on veut int{\'e}grer avec succ{\`e}s les habitants de la r{\'e}gion dans le plan g{\'e}n{\'e}ral. Les Karens constituent le groupement minoritaire le plus important dans les r{\'e}gions montagneuses de la Tha{\"\i}lande. Par tradition, ils utilisent un syst{\`e}me conservatif de culture sur br{\^u}lis caracteris{\'e} par de courtes p{\'e}riodes de culture et de longues p{\'e}riodes en friche. Les ressources agraires appartiennent plus ou moins\ {\`a} la collectivit{\'e} qui compte beaucoup sur l\&$\#$39;{\'e}change r{\'e}ciproque de la main-d\&$\#$39;oeuvre pour cultiver les terres familiales, et sur la main-d\&$\#$39;oeuvre volontaire pour effectuer les t{\^a}ches n{\'e}cessaires\ {\`a} la protection du village et des terres avoisinantes contre le feu et autres dangers. Le syst{\`e}me de culture sur br{\^u}lis ressemble {\`a} l\&$\#$39;agro-foresterie du fait que les fermiers encouragent la r{\'e}g{\'e}n{\'e}ration de la for{\^e}t, en permettant aux souches et aux taillis de repousser dans les champs cultiv{\'e}s, et en utilisant judicieusement le feu dans les br{\^u}lis en friche. Les arbres sont utilis{\'e}s pour la construction et pour le chauffage domestique, et sous forme de cendres pour fertilizer les champs de riz et d\&$\#$39;autres plantes cultiv{\'e}es. Les br{\^u}lis sont cultiv{\'e}s de mani{\`e}re\ {\`a} minimiser les perturbations du sols. Combin{\'e} {\`a} une faible densit{\'e} d{\'e}mographique, ce syst{\`e}me a pu supporter un r{\'e}gime d\&$\#$39;auto-consommation pendant des centaines d\&$\#$39;ann{\'e}es, sans d{\'e}t{\'e}rioration majeure de l\&$\#$39;environnement. Ce syst{\`e}me s\&$\#$39;est d{\'e}stabilis{\'e} au cours des derni{\`e}res ann{\'e}es, du fait que la plupart des projets de d{\'e}veloppement ne se sont pas integr{\'e}s dans les syst{\`e}mes existants d\&$\#$39;utilisation des terres. En g{\'e}n{\'e}ral, les techniques agro-foresti{\`e}res n\&$\#$39;ont pas {\'e}t{\'e} appliqu{\'e}es pour augmenter la productivit{\'e} des br{\^u}lis. Des projets intensifs de reboisement dans les zones de br{\^u}lis ont r{\'e}duit la superficie des terres disponibles aux Karens, alors que leur population s\&$\#$39;est accrue du fait d\&$\#$39;un moindre taux de mortalit{\'e} et d\&$\#$39;une migration vers les r{\'e}gions montagneuses. La commercialisation de leur r{\'e}gime d\&$\#$39;autoconsommation a men{\'e} {\`a} un declin de la main-d\&$\#$39;oeuvre disponible pour les {\'e}changes r{\'e}ciproques. Une demande plus importante pour les produits forestiers a diminu{\'e} la stabilit{\'e} de la structure agraire en ce qui concerne les br{\^u}llis et autres terres r{\'e}gies par la collectivit{\'e}. Les Karens accordent maintenant plus d\&$\#$39;importance aux terres irrigu{\'e}es, alors que la culture sur br{\^u}llis tend\ {\`a} se d{\'e}grader (p{\'e}riodes de culture plus longues compar{\'e}es aux p{\'e}riodes en friche, et utilisation moins judicieuse du feu).

Agro-Forstwirtschaft verwendet um die Landnutzung bewaldeter Fl{\"a}chen zu intensivieren, B{\"a}ume zusammen mit Feldfr{\"u}chten. Durch ein Entwicklungsprogramm optimierte Agro-Forstwirtschaft erfordert genaue Kenntnis der herk{\"o}mmlichen Landnutzung und Besitzverh{\"a}ltnisse, will man die Einwohner erfolgreich in die Planung einbeziehen. Die Karen Bev{\"o}lkerung, die gr{\"o}sste Minderheit der Hochlandbewohner Thailands, hat seit jeher ein System benutzt, bei dem nach einer kurzen Anbauzeit eine lange Brachperiode mit Roden und Brennen folgt. Landressourcen werden mehr oder weniger von der Gemeinde verwaltet, die, um Familienbesitzungen zu bestellen, stark von gegenseitigem Arbeitskr{\"a}fteaustausch abh{\"a}ngt. Daneben ist freiwillige Arbeit f{\"u}r Gemeindeaufgaben notwendig, um das kommunale Land vor Feuer und anderen Gefahren zu sch{\"u}tzen. Das System des Rodens und Brennens {\"a}hnelt der Agro-Forstwirtschaft darin, dass die Bauern auf bebauten Feldern neuen Baumwuchs aus St{\"u}mpfen und Unterholz zulassen, und das Feuer auf das Brachland beschr{\"a}nken. B{\"a}ume werden als Baumaterial und Brennholz benutzt, ausserdem liefern sie (in Form von Asche) N{\"a}hrstoffe, die Felder mit Reis und anderen Feldfr{\"u}chten d{\"u}ngen. Roden- und Brennfl{\"a}chen werden mit geringer Bodenbeeintr{\"a}chtigung bestellt. Bei niedriger Bev{\"o}lkerungsdichte konnte das System {\"u}ber Jahrhunderte ohne grosse Umweltverschlechterung eine gleichbleibende Selbstversorger{\"o}konomie aufrechterhalten. Unl{\"a}ngst jedoch wurde das System instabil. Die meisten Entwicklungsprojekte wurden nicht in bestehende Landnutzungssysteme integriert. Allgemein wurden agro-forstwirtschaftliche Techniken zur Ertragssteigerung beim Roden- und Brennsystem nicht angewendet. Der Landanteil, der den Karen zur Verf{\"u}gung steht, ist durch umfangreiche Aufforstungsprojekte zur{\"u}ckgegangen, w{\"a}hrend gleichzeitig die Bev{\"o}lkerungszahl durch Zur{\"u}ckgehen der Sterblichkeit und Umsiedelung in die Berge gestiegen ist. Kommerzialisierung der Selbstversorger{\"o}konomie f{\"u}hrte zu einem R{\"u}ckgang in der Verf{\"u}gbarkeit von Austauscharbeitskr{\"a}ften. Zunehmender Bedarf an Waldressourcen hat ausserdem zur Verunsicherung der Besitzverh{\"a}ltnisse des Roden- und Brennlandes und anderer kommunaler L{\"a}ndereien gef{\"u}hrt. Die Karen legen jetzt mehr Wert darauf, ihre Felder zu bew{\"a}ssern; dadurch werden sie h{\"a}ufiger bestellt, die Zeit der Brache ist k{\"u}rzer, aber die Feuergefahr ist h{\"o}her, w{\"a}hrend sich das System des Rodens und Brennens verschlechtert hat.

}, keywords = {agroforestry, land tenure, rice, shifting cultivation}, doi = {10.2307/3673036}, url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/3673036}, author = {Peter Kunstadter} } @inbook {895, title = {Machiguenga Gardens}, booktitle = {Adaptive responses of native Amazonians}, year = {1983}, note = {Chapter 2}, month = {1983}, pages = {29-63}, publisher = {Academic Press}, organization = {Academic Press}, address = {New York}, abstract = {The present description concerns shifting cultivation among the Machiguenga, Native American inhabitants of the tropical rainforest of the Upper Amazon, specifically, a community on the Kompiroshiato River, a tributary of the Urubamba River in the department of Cuzco, Peru. The language is of the Arawakan family, and is closely allied to that of the Amuesha, Campa, and Piro Indians, who also inhabit the montana of Southeastern Peru. As is typical of the montana region, Machiguenga settlements vary from single families to small hamlets of related families located on a stream that provides clean water for household needs, near a river suitable for fishing, and with abundant forest for hunting and from which gardens are cleared. Population density is 0.3 persons/km2. The Machiguenga spend nearly as much time procuring wild foods as they do cultivating their gardens, but it is from their gardens that the vast bulk of their food derives, including a great overproduction of starchy tubers for food security under isolated and vulnerable living conditions. (author)}, keywords = {cacao, coffee, forest dwellers, horticulture, hunter-gatherer, labor, maize, manioc, Native Americans, rainforests, shifting cultivation, slash and burn, soils, South America, weeds, women, yams}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8827760}, author = {Allen Johnson}, editor = {Raymond B. Hames and William T. Vickers} } @article {729, title = {Agroforestry practices in the dry regions}, year = {1980}, month = {October 1981}, pages = {419-434}, publisher = {ICRAF}, address = {Nairobi, Kenya}, abstract = {

Several diagrams are included which relate to the items listed below.

This document looks at agroforestry practices in regions characterized by prolonged dry seasons of eight to ten months, low summer rainfall of 200 to 600 mm, exhibiting high yearly fluctuations and high temperatures which often exceed 40C. In this region evaporation, which is accelerated by high temperatures and dry wind currents, is very high, possibly reaching over 20 mm/day during the hotest months. (author)

Sections in this document include: land use practices in Kenya; and, examples of agroforestry practices--Gum Gardens in the Sudan, the Bougag{\'e} Land Rotation System in Niger, and, the use of multi-purpose farm trees.

}, keywords = {Africa, crop rotation, fallow, fuelwood, multipurpose tree species, shifting cultivation}, author = {A. G. Seif el Din}, editor = {Louise Buck} } @conference {801, title = {The processing of rotan, a minor forest product from the tropical rain forest}, booktitle = {Paper prepared for Eighth World Forestry Congress - Forests for People, October 1978, Jakarta, Indonesia}, series = {Mitteilungen der Bundesforschungsanstalt f{\"u}r Forst- und Holzwirtschaft Reinbek bei Hamburg, no. 124}, year = {1979}, note = {World Forestry Congress, Jakarta, Indonesia Hamburg-Reinbek Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products Jan 1979. 2pp.}, month = {October 1978}, pages = {158-178}, publisher = {Kommissionsverlag Buchh. Max Wiedebusch}, organization = {Kommissionsverlag Buchh. Max Wiedebusch}, address = {Hamburg-Reinbek}, abstract = {This is one page from an incomplete paper. It includes research about the cultivation of rotan. It talks of ladang shifting) cultivation and how it can become secondary jungle because other forms of forest are not useful. Sega rotan (Calamis caesius) should be planted at certain intervals and from east to west. The rest of the page tells how the fertilization process proceeds and how they attend to the growth and care of the plants.}, keywords = {rainforests, rotan, shifting cultivation}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13455115}, author = {H. M. Simatupang} } @inbook {925, title = {The types of utilization}, booktitle = {Tropical forest ecosystems: A state-of-knowledge report prepared by UNESCO/UNEP/FAO}, series = {Natural Resources Research no. 14}, year = {1978}, month = {1978}, pages = {453-487}, publisher = {UNESCO}, organization = {UNESCO}, address = {Paris}, abstract = {The purpose of this chapter is to examine different types of utilization of the forest ecosystems of the humid tropics, but excluding complete transformation to agro-ecosystems. Improved grassland will be discussed chiefly to demonstrate that it is possible to simplify the forest ecosystem to a certain degree, frequently in connection with tree crops, but without the intention of suggesting a research program. The farming or cropping of large wild mammals will not be discussed but will be mentioned in connection with wildlife management. Harvesting and product transport and the socio-economic aspects of development schemes (though their direct or indirect influence on utilization is considerable) will not be considered except for the necessity of research.}, keywords = {agroforestry, logging, shifting cultivation}, isbn = {92-3-101507-9}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4745455}, author = {UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) and UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)} } @article {613, title = {Maintenance of agriculture and human habitats within the tropical forest ecosystem}, journal = {Human Ecology}, volume = {4}, year = {1976}, month = {July 1976}, pages = {247-259}, abstract = {The tactics of shifting cultivation are reviewed with particular reference given to techniques of forest regeneration. The desirability of a forest-fallow system of agriculture is explained. Also discussed are the causes, indicators, and consequences of a breakdown of forest-fallow cultivation. In conclusion, the future of tropical forests for agriculture and habitats for man is considered (author).}, keywords = {shifting cultivation, tropical agriculture, tropical forests}, doi = {10.1007/BF01534289}, author = {William C. Clarke} } @inbook {898, title = {Multiple cropping in tropical Asia}, booktitle = {Multiple cropping}, series = {ASA special publication no. 27}, year = {1976}, note = {

Symposium sponsored by Divisions A-6, S-4, S-6, A-3, A-4, and C-3 of the American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America.
Available for purchase online from ACSESS Digital Library.

See also:https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/books/pdfs/asaspecialpubli/multiplecroppin/frontmatter

}, month = {1976}, pages = {11-40}, publisher = {ASA [American Society of Agronomy]}, organization = {ASA [American Society of Agronomy]}, address = {Madison, WI}, abstract = {

Proceedings of a symposium. The papers were presented during the annual meetings of the American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America in Knoxville, Tennessee, August 1975.

Present and potential multiple cropping patterns are determined by a wide range of physical and socio-economic conditions against a background of available technology. We have therefore chosen to present multiple cropping in tropical Asia in several parts which describe first the economic and physical factors which influence multiple cropping, then the present farming systems within which multiple cropping is practiced and their direction of change, and finally, the major multiple cropping patterns. Relevant research needs are summarized.

Tropical Asia includes the area between the Himalayan mountains and the equator from Pakistan and India to Indonesia, New Guinea, the Philippines, southern Taiwan, the southeastern portion of the People\&$\#$39;s Republic of China and mainland southeast Asia. The dominant crops in the region are mainly determined by water supply. Cropping systems in the drier regions of India and Pakistan are based on corn, sorghum, millet, and wheat, while the wetter areas of these same countries are nearly all of east Asia, having high rainfall, are rice based. (author)

}, keywords = {agroforestry, homestead, irrigation, multiple cropping, shifting cultivation, soils, Thailand, tree intercropping, vegetables}, isbn = {0-89118-045-1}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/842231973}, author = {R. R. Harwood and E. C. Price}, editor = {R. I. Papendick and P. A. Sanchez and G. B. Triplett} } @article {754, title = {An ethnoecological approach to shifting agriculture}, journal = {Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences}, volume = {17}, year = {1954}, note = {Available at Wiley Online Library}, month = {December 1954}, pages = {133-142}, abstract = {To dispel some of the commonly held beliefs that swidden agriculture is a wasteful, gluttonous, simple/uncomplicated, and destructive endeavor, this paper looks at shifting cultivation in the Philippines. Looking at the Yagaw Hanunoo of southeastern Mindanoa Island and their practice of swidden agriculture is the primary focus of this paper. The author includes evidence of complex labor intense fields, use of secondary forest, controlled burning, multi-cropping, and highly efficient yield to labor outputs.}, keywords = {shifting cultivation, upland farming}, doi = {10.1111/j.2164-0947.1954.tb00402.x}, url = {https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?\&author=H.\%20Conklin\&journal=An\%20ethnoecological\%20approach\%20to\%20shifting\%20agriculture\&volume=17\&pages=133-142\&publication_year=1954}, author = {Harold C. Conklin} }