@proceedings {347, title = {Indigenous knowledge and sustainable development: 25 selected papers presented at the international symposium held by the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, September 20-26, 1992}, year = {1993}, publisher = {Regional Program for the Promotion of Indigenous Knowledge in Asia, International Institute of Rural Reconstruction}, address = {Silang, Cavite, Philippines}, abstract = {

Contains the following papers:

}, keywords = {agricultural innovations, aquaculture, congresses, ecology, fish culture, Java, Kasepuhan, rice, rice-fish culture, sustainable development}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/820560133}, author = {International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR)} } @article {551, title = {Effects of trees on paddy bund on soil fertility and rice growth in Northeast Thailand}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {18}, year = {1992}, month = {June 1992}, pages = {213-223}, abstract = {

A study was conducted in Northeast Thailand on six rice paddy fields on a farm with similar soil (Aquic Quartzipsamments) and with a single tree on the paddy bund. There were 4 tree species: Parinarium anamense, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, D. intricatus, and Samanea saman. Samples of soil (0-10 cm depth) and rice were collected at 3 positions (1, 5-7, and 9-11 m) away from the tree base in 3 replicated tree-soil trasects in each paddy field. Significantly higher pH, organic matter, and nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, and Mg) were found in paddy fields with S. saman (a legume tree) but grain yield and biomass of rice were significantly lower. Higher soil fertility was found in the positions closer to tree base while grain yields, biomass, and number of tillers were lower, and rice was taller and had more unfilled grain. Shading was deduced to be the key factor responsible for the depressed rice yields and growth at positions closer to tree base especially in the highly shading S. saman.

}, keywords = {minerals, northeast Thailand, paddy, rice, soil fertility, trees}, doi = {10.1007/BF00123318}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00123318}, author = {S. Sae-Lee and P. Vityakon and B. Prachaiyo} } @conference {794, title = {Rice and fish: Dual function of rice fields among the Kasepuhan people in West Java}, booktitle = { Indigenous knowledge and sustainable development: 25 selected papers presented at the international symposium held by the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, September 20-26, 1992}, year = {1992}, month = {Sept. 21-25 1992}, publisher = {International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR)}, organization = {International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR)}, address = {Silang, Cavite, Philippines}, abstract = {

In West Java there is a group of people whose social world is considered to be almost completely based on traditional manners and custom. This particular community is the Kasepuhan people. They live on the slope of Mt. Halimun in the southern part of West Java. The Kasepuhan people still practice swidden agriculture, as well as wet rice agriculture. Until now they have refused the government proposal to change the planting and harvesting of rice from one to two times a year. This proposal is in conflict with their traditional belief. However, the government looks at this refusal as a protest to their agriculture development policy.

During the period of rest in the rice paddy field, fish are raised. This process brings economic as well as ecological benefits for the Kasepuhan people.

}, keywords = {aquaculture, ecology, fish culture, Java, Kasepuhan, rice, rice-fish culture}, author = {Kusnaka Adimihardja} } @conference {769, title = {Indigenous knowledge and development (revised version)}, year = {1991}, note = {Background paper for seminar series on "Sociology and Natural Resource Management", Agriculture Department, The World Bank, December 3, 1990}, month = {Feb. 20, 1991}, address = {Washington, DC}, abstract = {There are now hundreds of studies which have recorded indigenous knowledge in many countries. A review of these documents reveals useful insights in how indigenous knowledge and scientific research can benefit from one another. Despite improvements in crop and livestock production technologies, many farmers do not adopt these innovations. Research indicates that the farmers{\textquoteright} decisions to reject an innovation are often rational when viewed through the indigenous system. Many farming systems are based on intimate knowledge of soils, vegetation, climate, and pests. They also reflect strategies that allow the farmer to avoid perceived input, output and marketing risks or uncertainties. Understanding these perceived risks and ways of avoiding them can be an important first step towards fruitful partnerships between development professionals and farmers. Several examples of types of indigenous knowledge useful for development are outlined in this paper.}, keywords = {agroforestry, aquatic resources, ethnoveterinary medicine, fisheries, forest gardens, mixed cropping, pest management, rice, traditional medicine, trees}, author = {D. Michael Warren} } @book {368, title = {NGO-government interaction in rice-fish farming and other aspects of sustainable agricultural development in Thailand}, series = {Network paper ODI, Agricultural Administration (Research and Extension) Network no. 28}, year = {1991}, month = {December 1991}, pages = {41}, publisher = {Agricultural Administration Unit, Overseas Development Institute}, organization = {Agricultural Administration Unit, Overseas Development Institute}, address = {London}, abstract = {John Sollow{\textquoteright}s paper reports that whilst formerly widespread in Central Thailand, the populartity of rice-fish culture began to be replaced by more profitable agricultural technologies from the early 1970{\textquoteright}s. These technologies are of limited applicability in Northeast Thailand, where rice-fish culture began to spread in the early 1980s, following rapid declines in traditional wild fish sources. NGOs were among the first to notice its increasing popularity and to bring it to the attention of several government agencies. Subsequently, on-farm, farmer managed trials by the Department of Agriculture helped to confirm the viability of the practice, and to bring it to the attention of policy-makers. Considering these results and their own experiences, the Department of Fisheries has assigned a high priority to the extension of rice-fish culture in Northeast Thailand. The Department of Agriculture Extension is also involved in extending the practice there and elsewhere. Research efforts continue to address factors limiting the adoption and productivity of the technology. Major extension efforts are expected to continue. The relationship between government and non-government agencies is largely informal. Some examples of contacts which have been mutually beneficial are given, and possible ways of strengthening institutional linkages are discussed. Most are open to debate, but all relate to improved communications, be it in style, content or frequency.}, keywords = {agricultural development projects, aquatic resources, fish culture, rice, sustainable agriculture, Thailand}, issn = {0951-1873}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/25907615}, author = {John Sollows and Lanthom Jonjuabsong and Aroon Hwai-Kham} } @article {827, title = {Los agricultores de Yurimaguas: Uso de la tierra y estrategias de cultivo en la selva peruana}, year = {1989}, note = {includes photographs, diagrams, maps, bibliography}, month = {[1989]}, institution = {Lima, Peru}, address = {Centro de Investigaci{\'o}n y Promoci{\'o}n Amaz{\'o}nica}, abstract = {

(trans.) The Farmers of Yurimaguas: Land Use and Cultivation Strategies in the Peruvian Jungle

This book is the result of a study conducted by the Center for Amazonian Promotion and Investigation. The book contains nine chapters examining traditional agricultural practices and rural domestic farms. The study is based on a perspective recently developed by agriculturists which is farmer-oriented instead of the traditional western development model. The principal objectives in the book are understanding the complex system of subsistence agriculture and the cultivation of commercial products in the Yurimaguas area. The book consists of an in-depth look at the results of the study conducted in the Yurimaguas. Some important areas of the study are the work force, ethnoecology, crops (such as rice, yucca, plantain and bananas, corn, beans, peanuts, sugar cane, pineapple, and sweet potatoes). The authors stress the importance of indigenous technology and emphasize the methods in which the peasants of Yurimaguas have regained their traditional techniques.

}, keywords = {Amazon, bananas, beans, corn, crops, ethnoecology, farmer participatory research, peanuts, peasants, pineapple, plantains, rice, sugar cane, sweet potatoes, technology, work force, yucca, Yurimaguas}, author = {Pedro Bidegaray and Robert E. Rhoades} } @article {691, title = {The need to build upon farmer practice and knowledge: Reminders from selected upland conservation projects and policies}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {9}, year = {1989}, month = {October 1989}, pages = {141-153}, abstract = {

On-farm research and development projects in SE Asia\&$\#$39;s uplands have addressed problems of ecosystems degradation. Farmer adoption, however, of land conservation technologies has generally not resulted or has not been sustainable. This paper examines four agroforestry projects and two policy approaches meant to protect upland resources. Promoted innovations and farmer adoption are described. Six lessons are reemphasized:

Overall, variable scale diagnosis and design that is unbiased towards pre-selected technologies is needed. Lessons learned contributed to farmer-participatory agroforestry research being conducted in an upland rice-based system in the Philippines. (author)

}, keywords = {adoption, agriculture, conservation, diagnosis and design, farmer knowledge, farmer participation, farmer practice, forestry, labor, participatory research, resource management, rice, slash and burn, soil erosion, sustainability, swiddens, upland farming}, doi = {10.1007/BF00168259}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00168259}, author = {S. Fujisaka} } @book {413, title = {Useful farming practices: New edition}, year = {1988}, month = {1988}, pages = {451}, publisher = {Japan Association for International Cooperation of Agriculture \& Forestry}, organization = {Japan Association for International Cooperation of Agriculture \& Forestry}, address = {Tokyo}, abstract = {This book is a general overview of farming techniques for diverse ecological systems and technological capabilities. Major areas of discussion are horticulture, animal husbandry, agricultural engineering, farming machines and tools, sericulture, forestry, and fisheries. There is also an emphasis on rice cultivation.}, keywords = {agricultural engineering, agroforestry, animal husbandry, appropriate technology and intermediate technology, aquatic resources, ecology, ethnobotany, fisheries, forestry, horticulture, rice, sericulture, upland farming}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/22662784}, author = {Japan Association for International Cooperation of Agriculture \& Forestry (AICAF)} } @article {580, title = {IITA: Sustainable systems}, journal = {African Farming}, year = {1987}, month = {Sept/Oct 1987}, pages = {50-51}, abstract = {Bede Nwoye Okigbo, Deputy Director General of International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) for the last ten years, is one of those rare human beings who has a rich professional life perfectly integrated with his own personality. Several societies and academies have enrolled his talents. His field of specialization is crop ecology and production, but it is hard to find any area of agriculture or botany where Okigbo{\textquoteright}s profound insight or experience in not equally valid. In this interview, Dr. Okigbo explains how research being carried out at IITA is helping Africa to feed itself.}, keywords = {agricultural extension, agroforestry, alley cropping, barley, cassava, cereal food imports, cereals, cowpeas, farming systems research , food aid, green revolution, indigenous crops, maize, millet, plantains, rice, seed yam, seeds, soils, sorghum, strategic planning study, sustainable agriculture, wheat, yams}, author = {Anonymous} } @conference {785, title = {Notes and reflections on the workshop on farmers and agricultural research: Complementary methods}, booktitle = {Paper presented at IDS Workshop on Farmers and Agricultural Research: Complementary Methods, July 26-31, 1987, University of Sussex}, year = {1987}, note = {IDS (Institute of Development Studies)}, month = {July 1987}, publisher = {Brighton, UK}, organization = {Brighton, UK}, address = {University of Sussex}, abstract = {The workshop, Farmers and Agricultural Research: Complementary Methods, was held at the Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK, from 26 to 31 July 1987. The objective was to take stock of new methods and approaches that scientists have been developing, to share experience, to assess potential, and to identify what steps should be taken next. The 42 notes and papers and the five days of the discussion at the workshop were designed for the exchange and exploration rather than to generate an agreed statement. What follows are therefore personal notes and reflections, and responsibility for the views expressed is mine and not of anyone else. All the same, I am trying to present views expressed, and there was a degree of consensus which suggests that few participants would probably wish to dissent substantially from much of what follows. (author)}, keywords = {agricultural research, agricultural science, agroforestry, agronomy, Bangladesh, bio-economic, Botswana, Brazil, Bungoma, Colombia, cropping systems, cropping systems research, crops, development, dry farming, dryland agriculture, East India, farmer experimentation, farmers, Farming Systems Development Project-Eastern Visayas (FSDP-EV), food, India, indigenous genetic resources, indigenous technical knowledge , Indore, Kenya, land classification, livestock, Luapula, Luapula Province, Nepal, on-farm varietal, Peru, Pokot, regular research field hearings (RRFH), research and development , resource-poor, rice, scientized packages, soil classification, Sub-Saharan Africa, topsoil, tree planting, trees, Turkana, watersheds, Zambia}, author = {Robert Chambers} } @inbook {897, title = {Mountain people in the Philippines: Ethnographic contributions to upland development}, booktitle = {Man, agriculture and the tropical forest: Change and development in the Philippine uplands}, year = {1986}, note = {Chapter 3}, month = {1986}, pages = {49-51 and 76-85 [43-85]}, publisher = {Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development}, organization = {Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development}, address = {Bangkok, Thailand}, abstract = {A crisis of deforestation and consequent soil erosion looms in many southeast Asian upland ecosystems. Blame for this problem has been attributed to both slash and burn agriculturalists or timber extraction industries. To the extent that the actions of uplanders rather than legal and illegal logging are seen as being responsible for diminishing forest reserves, a growing demand exists among policy-makers and foresters for a more holistic, interdisciplinary approach to appropriate intervention strategies. Anthropologists are now frequently incorporated into technical programs and are given a growing recognition that economic change cannot be understood adequately in isolation from the social institutional framework. Recent efforts in social forestry, for example, suggest that anthropological perspectives have direct practical applicability to development programs.}, keywords = {agroforestry, animal feed, community forestry, fallow, fuelwood, medicine, rice, swiddens}, isbn = {0933595123; 9780933595125}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/18193024}, author = {Susan D. Russell}, editor = {Sam Fujisaka and Percy E. Sajise and Romulo del Castillo} } @article {649, title = {Seventeenth century organic agriculture in China: II. Energy flows through an agroecosystem in Jiaxing region}, journal = {Human Ecology}, volume = {14}, year = {1986}, month = {1986}, pages = {15-28}, abstract = {An examination of traditional agriculture of the Jiaxing region of eastern China in the seventeenth century. Use of statistical evidence on energy inputs and outputs to show the sustainable incorporation of silk, mulberry, livestock, fishing, and cereal crop production with little or no fossil fuel use.}, keywords = {agroecology, China, energy flow, fodder, labor, organic farming, rice, silkworm, wheat}, doi = {10.1007/BF00889208}, url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/4602798}, author = {Wen Dazhong and David Pimentel} } @inbook {927, title = {Traditional agroforestry in West Java: The pekarangan (homegarden) and kebun-talun (annual-perennial rotation) cropping systems}, booktitle = {Traditional agriculture in southeast Asia: A human ecology perspective}, year = {1986}, month = {1986}, pages = {132-157}, publisher = {Westview Press}, organization = {Westview Press}, address = {Boulder, CO}, abstract = {This chapter looks at the role of kebun-talun and pekarangan in the Javanese landscape. Kebun-talun (rotation system between mixed garden and tree plantation) is a traditional system that increases overall production and serves multiple functions by sequentially combining agricultural crops with tree crops. Pekarangan (homegarden intercropping system) is a traditional system located in the villages that provides both subsistence and commercial products and serves multiple functions by simultaneously combining agricultural crops with tree crops and animals.}, keywords = {agriculture, agroforestry, animals, crop rotation, ecology, farming, home gardens, Indonesia, intercropping, Java, Javanese, kebun-talun, pekarangan, rice, tree crops, trees, upland farming}, isbn = {0-8133-7026-4}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12975293}, author = {Linda Christanty and Oekan S. Abdoellah and Gerald G. Marten and Johan Iskandar}, editor = {Gerald G. Marten} } @article {529, title = {Change and indigenous agroforestry in East Kalimantan [Part II]}, journal = {Borneo Research Bulletin}, volume = {15}, year = {1983}, note = {Part I in Borneo Research Bulletin, 1983 15(1)
CIKARD 91-01903}, month = {September 1983}, pages = {70-87}, abstract = {

This section is essentially an account of the differences that result when the third element, commerce, is introduced. To understand the changes and their impacts, we must first examine the system by which goods and food are produced and aquired in Long Ampung, in the virtual absence of commerce. The crux or core of the economic system is a form of agroforestry composed of at least two important components:

  1. a ricefield and its gradual transition back to (and including) primary forest, and
  2. a number of special purpose plots that for one reason or another do not appear to be involved in the \"normal\" forest succession process. (author)
}, keywords = {Apo Kayan, cash cropping, commercialism, gardening, lumber, marketing, primary forest, rainforests, rice, secondary forest, shopkeeping, tropical forests}, url = {http://www.borneoresearchcouncil.org/BRB\%20PDF\%20scans/BRB_1983_15_02.pdf}, author = {Carol J. Pierce Colfer} } @article {600, title = {Karen agro-forestry: Processes, functions, and implications for socio-economic, demographic, and environmental change in northern Thailand}, journal = {Mountain Research and Development}, volume = {3}, year = {1983}, month = {November 1983}, pages = {326-337}, abstract = {

Agro-forestry uses trees in combination with non-tree crops to intensify land use in forested areas. Optimal use of agro-forestry in a development programme requires a thorough knowledge of traditional land ownership and use if the area\&$\#$39;s inhabitants are to be integrated successfully into the plan.

The Karen people, the largest highland minority group in Thailand, have traditionally used a conservative short cultivation-long fallow swidden system. Land resources are loosely held by the community, which depends heavily on reciprocal exchange labour to cultivate family farms, and volunteer labour for the communal tasks necessary to protect village lands from fire and other hazards. The swidden system resembles agro-forestry in that the farmers encourage forest regeneration by allowing regrowth from stumps and coppiced trees in cultivated fields, and by controlling fire in fallow swiddens. Trees are used for construction and domestic fuel, and to bring nutrients where they can be used (as ash) to fertilize rice and a wide variety of non-tree crops. Swiddens are cultivated with minimal disturbance to the soil. With low population density the system sustained a subsistence economy for hundreds of years without major environmental deterioration.

In recent years the system has been destabilized. Most development projects have not been integrated into existing land-use systems.

Agro-forestry techniques have not generally been applied to increase swidden productivity. Extensive reforestation projects in swidden land areas have reduced the amount of land available to Karens at the same time as population has grown due to decline in mortality and migration into the hills. Commercialization of the subsistence economy has led to a decline in the availability of reciprocal exchange labour. Increased demand for forest resources has led to decrease in security of tenure for swiddens and other communally held land. Karens are now placing greater emphasis on irrigated fields, while the swidden system has tended to deteriorate, with more frequent cultivation and shorter fallow, and less adequate control of fire.

L\&$\#$39;agro-foresterie consid{\`e}re les arbres comme une ressource au m{\^e}me titre que d\&$\#$39;autres plantes cultiv{\'e}es, pour permettre d\&$\#$39;intensifier l\&$\#$39;exploitation du sol dans les r{\'e}gions foresti{\`e}res. L\&$\#$39;utilisation optimale de l\&$\#$39;agro-foresteire dans le cadre d\&$\#$39;un programme de d{\'e}veloppement n{\'e}c{\'e}ssite une connaissance profonde des modes traditionnels affectant la propri{\'e}t{\'e} et l\&$\#$39;utilisation des terres, si l\&$\#$39;on veut int{\'e}grer avec succ{\`e}s les habitants de la r{\'e}gion dans le plan g{\'e}n{\'e}ral. Les Karens constituent le groupement minoritaire le plus important dans les r{\'e}gions montagneuses de la Tha{\"\i}lande. Par tradition, ils utilisent un syst{\`e}me conservatif de culture sur br{\^u}lis caracteris{\'e} par de courtes p{\'e}riodes de culture et de longues p{\'e}riodes en friche. Les ressources agraires appartiennent plus ou moins\ {\`a} la collectivit{\'e} qui compte beaucoup sur l\&$\#$39;{\'e}change r{\'e}ciproque de la main-d\&$\#$39;oeuvre pour cultiver les terres familiales, et sur la main-d\&$\#$39;oeuvre volontaire pour effectuer les t{\^a}ches n{\'e}cessaires\ {\`a} la protection du village et des terres avoisinantes contre le feu et autres dangers. Le syst{\`e}me de culture sur br{\^u}lis ressemble {\`a} l\&$\#$39;agro-foresterie du fait que les fermiers encouragent la r{\'e}g{\'e}n{\'e}ration de la for{\^e}t, en permettant aux souches et aux taillis de repousser dans les champs cultiv{\'e}s, et en utilisant judicieusement le feu dans les br{\^u}lis en friche. Les arbres sont utilis{\'e}s pour la construction et pour le chauffage domestique, et sous forme de cendres pour fertilizer les champs de riz et d\&$\#$39;autres plantes cultiv{\'e}es. Les br{\^u}lis sont cultiv{\'e}s de mani{\`e}re\ {\`a} minimiser les perturbations du sols. Combin{\'e} {\`a} une faible densit{\'e} d{\'e}mographique, ce syst{\`e}me a pu supporter un r{\'e}gime d\&$\#$39;auto-consommation pendant des centaines d\&$\#$39;ann{\'e}es, sans d{\'e}t{\'e}rioration majeure de l\&$\#$39;environnement. Ce syst{\`e}me s\&$\#$39;est d{\'e}stabilis{\'e} au cours des derni{\`e}res ann{\'e}es, du fait que la plupart des projets de d{\'e}veloppement ne se sont pas integr{\'e}s dans les syst{\`e}mes existants d\&$\#$39;utilisation des terres. En g{\'e}n{\'e}ral, les techniques agro-foresti{\`e}res n\&$\#$39;ont pas {\'e}t{\'e} appliqu{\'e}es pour augmenter la productivit{\'e} des br{\^u}lis. Des projets intensifs de reboisement dans les zones de br{\^u}lis ont r{\'e}duit la superficie des terres disponibles aux Karens, alors que leur population s\&$\#$39;est accrue du fait d\&$\#$39;un moindre taux de mortalit{\'e} et d\&$\#$39;une migration vers les r{\'e}gions montagneuses. La commercialisation de leur r{\'e}gime d\&$\#$39;autoconsommation a men{\'e} {\`a} un declin de la main-d\&$\#$39;oeuvre disponible pour les {\'e}changes r{\'e}ciproques. Une demande plus importante pour les produits forestiers a diminu{\'e} la stabilit{\'e} de la structure agraire en ce qui concerne les br{\^u}llis et autres terres r{\'e}gies par la collectivit{\'e}. Les Karens accordent maintenant plus d\&$\#$39;importance aux terres irrigu{\'e}es, alors que la culture sur br{\^u}llis tend\ {\`a} se d{\'e}grader (p{\'e}riodes de culture plus longues compar{\'e}es aux p{\'e}riodes en friche, et utilisation moins judicieuse du feu).

Agro-Forstwirtschaft verwendet um die Landnutzung bewaldeter Fl{\"a}chen zu intensivieren, B{\"a}ume zusammen mit Feldfr{\"u}chten. Durch ein Entwicklungsprogramm optimierte Agro-Forstwirtschaft erfordert genaue Kenntnis der herk{\"o}mmlichen Landnutzung und Besitzverh{\"a}ltnisse, will man die Einwohner erfolgreich in die Planung einbeziehen. Die Karen Bev{\"o}lkerung, die gr{\"o}sste Minderheit der Hochlandbewohner Thailands, hat seit jeher ein System benutzt, bei dem nach einer kurzen Anbauzeit eine lange Brachperiode mit Roden und Brennen folgt. Landressourcen werden mehr oder weniger von der Gemeinde verwaltet, die, um Familienbesitzungen zu bestellen, stark von gegenseitigem Arbeitskr{\"a}fteaustausch abh{\"a}ngt. Daneben ist freiwillige Arbeit f{\"u}r Gemeindeaufgaben notwendig, um das kommunale Land vor Feuer und anderen Gefahren zu sch{\"u}tzen. Das System des Rodens und Brennens {\"a}hnelt der Agro-Forstwirtschaft darin, dass die Bauern auf bebauten Feldern neuen Baumwuchs aus St{\"u}mpfen und Unterholz zulassen, und das Feuer auf das Brachland beschr{\"a}nken. B{\"a}ume werden als Baumaterial und Brennholz benutzt, ausserdem liefern sie (in Form von Asche) N{\"a}hrstoffe, die Felder mit Reis und anderen Feldfr{\"u}chten d{\"u}ngen. Roden- und Brennfl{\"a}chen werden mit geringer Bodenbeeintr{\"a}chtigung bestellt. Bei niedriger Bev{\"o}lkerungsdichte konnte das System {\"u}ber Jahrhunderte ohne grosse Umweltverschlechterung eine gleichbleibende Selbstversorger{\"o}konomie aufrechterhalten. Unl{\"a}ngst jedoch wurde das System instabil. Die meisten Entwicklungsprojekte wurden nicht in bestehende Landnutzungssysteme integriert. Allgemein wurden agro-forstwirtschaftliche Techniken zur Ertragssteigerung beim Roden- und Brennsystem nicht angewendet. Der Landanteil, der den Karen zur Verf{\"u}gung steht, ist durch umfangreiche Aufforstungsprojekte zur{\"u}ckgegangen, w{\"a}hrend gleichzeitig die Bev{\"o}lkerungszahl durch Zur{\"u}ckgehen der Sterblichkeit und Umsiedelung in die Berge gestiegen ist. Kommerzialisierung der Selbstversorger{\"o}konomie f{\"u}hrte zu einem R{\"u}ckgang in der Verf{\"u}gbarkeit von Austauscharbeitskr{\"a}ften. Zunehmender Bedarf an Waldressourcen hat ausserdem zur Verunsicherung der Besitzverh{\"a}ltnisse des Roden- und Brennlandes und anderer kommunaler L{\"a}ndereien gef{\"u}hrt. Die Karen legen jetzt mehr Wert darauf, ihre Felder zu bew{\"a}ssern; dadurch werden sie h{\"a}ufiger bestellt, die Zeit der Brache ist k{\"u}rzer, aber die Feuergefahr ist h{\"o}her, w{\"a}hrend sich das System des Rodens und Brennens verschlechtert hat.

}, keywords = {agroforestry, land tenure, rice, shifting cultivation}, doi = {10.2307/3673036}, url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/3673036}, author = {Peter Kunstadter} } @article {723, title = {Why do Apo Kayan shifting cultivators move?}, journal = {Borneo Research Bulletin}, volume = {13}, year = {1981}, month = {April 1981}, pages = {16-32}, abstract = {This paper examines shifting cultivation patterns in Apo Kayan on the island of Borner (East Kalimantan). Includes reasons for moving from fields not related to food productions and discards the idea that shifting cultivators cannot adjust to a cash economy. Another "myth" this is discarded is that shifting cultivators are destroyers of primary forests. Also includes suggestions for resettlement program planning as well as expediting economic growth.}, keywords = {Indonesia, rainforests, rice, trade}, url = {http://www.borneoresearchcouncil.org/BRB\%20PDF\%20scans/BRB_1981_13_01.pdf}, author = {Timothy C. Jessup} } @book {384, title = {Shifting cultivation in Africa: The Zande system of agriculture}, year = {1956}, month = {1956}, pages = {xxxi, 304 pp.}, publisher = {Routledge \& Kegan Paul}, organization = {Routledge \& Kegan Paul}, address = {London, England}, abstract = {The excerpts from this book talk about the Zande ecological conceptions concerning swidden farming, rock and stone formations. The second part of this excerpt looks at Zande Crops: millet, Maize, sorghum, rice, cowpeas, green gram. The excerpt finishes with a discussion of overcultivation.}, keywords = {cowpeas, crop rotation, ecology, green gram, maize, millet, overcultivation, rice, rock formations, slash and burn, sorghum, swiddens, taxonomy, Zande}, url = {https://ehrafworldcultures-beta.its.yale.edu/cultures/fo07/documents/060}, author = {Pierre de Schlippe} }