@inbook {873, title = {Forest gardens of highland Sri Lanka: An indigenous system for reclaiming forest land}, booktitle = {The cultural dimension of development: Indigenous knowledge systems}, year = {1995}, month = {1995}, pages = {174-184}, publisher = {Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd [Practical Action Publishing]}, organization = {Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd [Practical Action Publishing]}, address = {London}, abstract = {

This paper describes initial efforts made to understand farmers\&$\#$39; ecological theory and management of forest garden systems located immediately around owner\&$\#$39;s homes, in a village in highland Sri Lanka. These were studied by the author for 13 months in 1985-86, during which time the structure and composition of the gardens were documented. The gardens are part of a larger farming system which may also include rice paddies, vegetable fields and/or plantation crops (such as tea). The research undertaken was multidisciplinary, and employed a combination of methods from landscape and vegetation ecology and ethnoscience. Different sections of the paper discuss the relevance of forest garden research, the process of understanding the principles of garden management, and ethnoscientific exploration of the farmers\&$\#$39; approach. The results show that the farmers\&$\#$39; classification of compatible and incompatible species in the gardens was commensurate with the pattern predicted by forest successional theory, and that the patchy structure of the gardens could be interpreted as a successional pattern, like gap phase succession, but understood and managed by the farmers, in part, on the basis of compatibility. An appendix lists the perennial species found in the gardens: on average the gardens contained 250 individual woody perennials of 29 species.

[EVERETT from agroforestry, ecology, sustainable agriculture]

Existing agroforestry systems in the tropics may provide valuable insight for sustainable tropical forest management. The basis for understanding such land use lies in the accumulated knowledge of generations of farmers as expressed in the design of their agroforestry systems. The forest gardens of highland Sri Lanka are dense, species-diverse systems. These analogs of natural forests provide their owners with food, fuel, fodder, timber and cash crops, and the native flora and fauna with habitat. The forest gardens have persisted through centuries of socio-political upheaval and economic change, while the natural forests surrounding them have been felled for timber and to make way for large scale plantation agriculture. Natural forest regeneration on abandoned plantations land is hindered by recurring fires during the dry season. Today, in the largely deforested highlands, the villages with their gardens resemble forest islands in a sea of degraded grasslands. The farmers in the traditional villages hold the key to reforestation encoded in the management of forest gardens which are planted in the grassland as villages expand. Principles from the farmers\&$\#$39; knowledge, particularly patterns of vegetation change over time, may also provide insight for reforesting marginal lands with ecologically and economically viable agroforestry systems elsewhere in the highlands of the tropics and for buffer zone management of forest reserves.

}, keywords = {agroforestry, Sri Lanka}, isbn = {1-85339-264-2; 978-1-85339-264-1; eISBN 978-1-78044-473-4}, url = {https://www.worldcat.org/title/59818080}, author = {Yvonne Everett}, editor = {D. Michael Warren and L. Jan Slikkerveer and David Brokensha} } @booklet {438, title = {Farewell lecture to World Bank}, year = {1994}, note = {Speech}, month = {January 14, 1994}, publisher = {Rainforest Action Network}, address = {San Francisco, CA}, abstract = {This is a copy of the speech given by Herman Daly, Senior Economist in the Environment Department of the World Bank, upon his retirement from the World Bank. He conveys his feelings about the way the workings of the Bank have evolved.}, keywords = {consumption, environmentally sustainable development, free trade, globalization, manmade capital, natural capital, productivity, resource throughput, World Bank}, url = {http://www.whirledbank.org/ourwords/daly.html}, author = {Herman E. Daly} } @mastersthesis {442, title = {Farmer knowledge and experimentation with trees and tree cultivation in agroforestry systems in Rwanda}, year = {1994}, month = {1994}, school = {Michigan State University, Department of Forestry}, address = {East Lansing, MI}, abstract = {

A dissertation submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Department of Forestry.

Although Rwandan farmers have used trees for numerous purposes for centuries, the active planting and management of woody vegetation on-farm has been a relatively recent innovation. The goal of this research was to determine and understand the processes of agroforestry knowledge generation by farmers underlying these changes in resource management and usage. In particular, the study focused on farmer experimental methods related to the integration of trees on the farm. As agriculture is both a social and technico-economic endeavor, and as knowledge generation is embedded within productive processes, a social-constructivist perspective of science and technology was used as a framework for this study.

The research focused on a group of 44 locally identified tree experts, chosen in a two stage process using a ranking game and community interviews. A comparison group of 71 farmers was chosen randomly from those identified in the game as less-knowledgeable about agroforestry. In-depth methods used to study knowledge/technology generation included biographical case studies of tree experts, tree inventories, a socio-economic survey, participant observation and focus group interviews.

Ranking game informants identified tree experts as farmers cultivation a diversity of trees on their farm in accordance with the philosophical meaning of knowledge: knowing a plurality of objects or notions. Ranking game and socioeconomic survey results showed agreement on key variables used to distinguish farmers. Tree experts had more land, trees and tree species, but the tree density on comparison farms was more than two times higher. This points to a differentiation in knowledge between expert and comparison farms which was more than two times higher. This points to a differentiation in knowledge between expert and comparison farmers. Consultants identified the lack of local communication and information exchange networks as the major draw back to advancing endogenous agroforestry knowledge.

The study concludes that collaboration between knowledge systems may be beneficial for both. A synthesis between systems will increase the effectiveness of ongoing scientific agroforestry research and development but, more importantly, it will empower, legitimize and enhance the existing endogenous capacities for identifying problems and developing solutions, which will be an important step towards enabling rural people themselves to alleviate their poverty. (author)

}, keywords = {agroforestry, development, Rwanda, trees}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/33975106}, author = {Christoffel Johannes Petrus Antonius Maria Den Biggelaar} } @conference {764, title = {Fisheries co-management: A worldwide, collaborative research project}, booktitle = {Research Program on Property Rights and the Performance of Natural Resource Systems held August 29-30, 1994, Stockholm, Sweden}, year = {1994}, note = {Case study presentation}, month = {Aug. 29-30, 1994}, publisher = {Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics}, organization = {Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics}, address = {Stockholm, Sweden}, abstract = {There is a need for rapid and substantial evolution of existing fisheries management systems in developing countries to support sustainable resource use. It is unlikely that local communities can accomplish this change on their own. But neither can the national government accomplish it entirely through bureaucratic instruments. There must evolve a more dynamic partnership using the capacities and interests of the local community, complemented by the ability of the national government to provide enabling legislation and institutions and other assistance. This partnership can be called co-management, where the national government and the community share authority for fisheries management.}, keywords = {aquaculture, marine resources}, author = {Robert S. Pomeroy and Sten Sverdrup-Jensen and Jesper Raakjaer-Nielsen} } @conference {763, title = {FISHBASE as a worldwide computerized repository of ethno-ichthyology or indigenous knowledge on fishes}, booktitle = { Indigenous knowledge and sustainable development: 25 selected papers presented at the international symposium held by the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, September 20-26, 1992}, year = {1992}, month = {1992}, address = {Silang, Cavite, Philippines}, abstract = {FISHBASE is a computerized encyclopedia on the fishes of the world, presently developed at ICLARM, in cooperation with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and numerous other institutions throughout the world. It is shown that the flexible structure of FISHBASE can accommodate both recent and ancient ethno-ichthyological information, i.e. "indigenous knowledge", not generally considered part of ichthyology. Readers are invited to cooperate with the FISHBASE project, and help turn this relational database into the world{\textquoteright}s database on indigenous knowledge of fish. (author)}, keywords = {aquaculture}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/820560133}, author = {M. L. D. Palomares and D. Pauly} } @book {328, title = {Fisheries management in the Pacific: Tradition and the challenges of development in Marovo, Solomon Islands}, series = {Discussion Paper no. 32}, year = {1992}, note = {Series title variation: Discussion paper (United Nations Research Institute for Social Development) 32}, month = {March 1992}, pages = {23}, publisher = {United Nations Research Institute for Social Development}, organization = {United Nations Research Institute for Social Development}, address = {Geneva, Switzerland}, abstract = {This paper, a commissioned study under the UNRISD Research Programme on "Sustainable Development Through People{\textquoteright}s Participation in Resource Management," examines a case of traditional fisheries-related resource management; a case in which local people, from a basis of traditional, "common property" control over the sea and its resources handle a multitude of development issues. Presenting first some important issues relating to people{\textquoteright}s role in fisheries management and to the "common property" debate, we then describe a traditional system for management of land and sea resources in a Pacific Islands society - that of Marovo Lagoon, Solomon Islands. Emphasis is given to fisheries resources, with a view to explaining in practical terms how the customary marine tenure system operates under the social, political, economic and ecological circumstances of change arising from development pressures. Against this background, assessments are made of the viability of this traditional fisheries management system under present conditions of centralized political control and of both external and internal pressures for large-scale resource development enterprises. (author)}, keywords = {fishery management, Solomon Islands}, author = {Edvard Hviding and Graham B. K. Baines} } @article {564, title = {Food taboos and folk medicine among fishermen from the Tocantins River (Brazil)}, journal = {Amazoniana}, volume = {12}, year = {1992}, month = {January 1992}, pages = {101-118}, abstract = {Fish utilization for food and folk medicine, and fish preference of families from the Tocantins river were studied. Questionnaires were used in the 234 interviews performed in cities, towns and scattered houses located along 100 km of river stretch. Curimat{\'a} (Prochilodus nigricans) is the most consumed fish and pacu-manteiga (Mylossoma duriventre) the most preferred species. The fish species avoided are correlated with the species used in folk medicine. Food taboos, or fish species not consumed during illness, are also cited. The usefulness of fish species for folk medicine and the piscivorous habits of most fish quoted as not consumed partially explain the food choices of fishermen. These explanations conform to materialist theories in cultural ecology.}, keywords = {Brazil, diet, fishing communities, food taboos, Rio Tocantins}, author = {Alpina Begossi and Francisco Manoel de Souza Braga} } @article {568, title = {Foresters{\textquoteright} beliefs about farmers: A priority for social science research in social forestry}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {17}, year = {1992}, month = {January 1992}, pages = {13-41}, abstract = {

This study suggests that one of the most productive (and most neglected) uses of social science research in forestry development projects is to examine foresters\&$\#$39; beliefs regarding rural peoples. This suggestion is illustrated with data from the Forestry Planning and Development Project, Pakistan\&$\#$39;s first nation-wide social forestry project.

The operational component of this project, intended to assist small farmers to cultivate trees on their farmlands, ran into immediate difficulties. Many of the foresters involved insisted that small farmers were simply not interested in tree cultivation. A comprehensive base-line study subsequently was carried out to examine the validity of this belief. The results of this study (confirmed by the subsequent experience with the project in the field) varied markedly from the foresters\&$\#$39; beliefs.

While many of the foresters believed small farmers were opposed to having trees on their farms and would not agree to plant trees under the project, most farmers already had trees on their farms and expressed interest in planting more; while many foresters believed farmers would only be interested in planting large blocks of market-oriented exotics, most farmers requested small plantings of multi-purpose native trees; while many foresters believed farmers would plant trees only for market sale, most farmers requested trees to meet household needs for fuel and timber; and while many foresters did not think that increasing supplies of fuelwood could reduce the burning of dung, all of the evidence provided by the farmers suggested that it would.

The disparity between farmer reality and forester belief is attributed to failures on the part of both foresters and social scientists - failure by foresters to distinguish their non-empirical beliefs about farmers from their empirically-based knowledge of trees, and failure by social scientists to recognize the belief systems of foresters as a legitimate and important object of study. Their study comprises three parts: finding out what the foresters think the farmers want, finding out from the farmers what they actually want, and then analyzing and explaining the differences.

}, keywords = {agroforestry, farm, forester beliefs, fuelwood, institutional factors, Pakistan, social sciences, socioeconomics}, doi = {10.1007/BF00122925}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00122925}, author = {Michael R. Dove} } @book {330, title = {Food from dryland gardens: An ecological, nutritional, and social approach to small-scale household food production}, year = {1991}, month = {1991}, publisher = {Center for People, Food and Environment (CPFE)}, organization = {Center for People, Food and Environment (CPFE)}, address = {Tucson, Arizona}, abstract = {This book was written to encourage gardens that serve local needs, that are based on local knowledge and resources, and that conserve natural resources and the biological diversity of traditional crops. It is written for field workers, extension agents, students, project workers, and program planners. Both a beginner{\textquoteright}s guide as well as a reference for those with more experience, this book helps the reader observe and work with local people to ask appropriate questions about the community, the environment, and the potential for gardens to improve nutritional, economic, and social well-being. (author)}, keywords = {ethnobotany, horticulture}, isbn = {0-9627997-0-X}, author = {David A. Cleveland and Daniela Soleri} } @article {566, title = {For a determined farmer, agroforestry brings an unexpected reward}, journal = {Agroforestry Today (Kenya)}, volume = {3}, year = {1991}, month = {July-Sept. 1991}, pages = {4-5}, abstract = {This document looks at the agroforestry efforts of George Nti{\textquoteright}Gitonga, a farmer in Kenya{\textquoteright}s Meru District. Since 1967, Mr. Nti{\textquoteright}Gitonga has established over 25,000 trees on his farm which he uses as fodder, food, fuelwood, timber, windbreaks, boundary plantings, erosion control, and maintenance of soil fertility. Also included in this document are Mr. Nti{\textquoteright}Gitonga{\textquoteright}s method for growing his trees in the semi-arid environment, and how he plans on harvesting water for the trees.}, keywords = {agroforestry, fodder, fuelwood, KEFRI, Kenya Forestry Research Institute, soil fertility, timber , trees, water }, author = {Sidney B. Westley and Alice Kaudia} } @book {329, title = {Food and nutrition in the African rain forest}, year = {1990}, month = {1990}, pages = {96}, publisher = {UNESCO/MAB}, organization = {UNESCO/MAB}, address = {Paris}, abstract = {

This document is a collection of articles on the food practices of different tribes in the rain forest and tropical climatic zones of central Africa (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Garbon, and Zaire). It looks at hunting and gathering practices, forest cultivation, food processing and consumption, physiological/biomedical aspects of food, and the socio-cultural aspects of food and nutrition. Tribes include: Aka, Baka, Issongo, Kola, Monzombo, Mvae, Ngando, Ngbaka, Ntomba, Oto, Twa, Yassa

}, keywords = {Aka, Baka, food processing and consumption, forest cultivation, hunter-gatherer, Issongo, Kola, Monzombo, Mvae, Ngando, Ngbaka, Ntomba, Oto, physiological/biomedical aspects of food, rainforests, socio-cultural aspects of food and nutrition, Twa, Yassa}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/22740525}, editor = {C. M. Hladik and S. Bahuchet and I. de Garine} } @conference {765, title = {Forest resource management and local knowledge: An overview of community forestry research in Nepal}, booktitle = {Paper presented at Second International Congress on Ethnobiology, October 21{\textendash}26, 1990, Kunming, Yunnan, China}, year = {1990}, month = {Oct. 21-26, 1990}, publisher = {Institute of Forestry}, organization = {Institute of Forestry}, address = {Pokhara, Nepal}, abstract = {

Community forestry research and training have become major foci at the Institute of Forestry (IOF) in Nepal. This reflects the nation\&$\#$39;s emphasis on linking biophysical and social forestry policy and practice, a recognition of the important role of villagers in forest resource management and the IOF\&$\#$39;s goal of becoming a national and regional center of excellence in community forestry training and research.

Recent trends in community forestry research are examined, both at the IOF and more widely within the Ministry of Forests and by private researchers and donor agencies. The knowledge of forest and tree resources among villagers is considerable, and is being looked to for guidance and recommendations by policy makers and development planners. Implications for forestry training, future research and policy are discussed.

}, keywords = {agroforestry, ethnobiology}, author = {Donald A. Messerschmidt} } @book {324, title = {Farmer first: Farmer innovation and agricultural research}, year = {1989}, month = {1989}, pages = {218 pp.}, publisher = {Intermediate Technology Publications}, organization = {Intermediate Technology Publications}, address = {London}, abstract = {This document is a list of 42 papers presented at the workshop. These papers deal with farmer-oriented approaches to agricultural development, especially farmer interaction with researchers. The subjects include agroecology, crops and technologies in areas as diverse as Bangladesh, Kenya, Colombia, Peru, Nepal, India, Zambia, Brazil, and Botswana. Farmer experimentation is a reoccurring topic.}, keywords = {agroecology, agroforestry}, isbn = {1-85339-007-0; m978-1-85339-007-4; 978-1-78044-014-9}, doi = {10.3362/9781780440149}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20444797}, editor = {Robert Chambers and Arnold Pacey and Lori Ann Thrupp} } @article {559, title = {Farmers{\textquoteright} production of timber trees in the cacao-coffee region of coastal Ecuador}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {9}, year = {1989}, month = {October 1989}, pages = {155-170}, abstract = {The coastal region of Ecuador is an important producer of cacao and coffee. Increasingly, farms and ranches in the region also provide industrial wood for sawmills and other wood processing plants. Most of this wood derives from shade trees and pasture trees. Because little is known of wood supply from farm sources in coastal Ecuador, a survey was conducted of 122 farmers in the subregions of Ventanas, La Troncal, and Babahoyo. The survey indicates an abundance of land for the growing of farm trees, and excellent regeneration of many species on the majority of farms. However, current stocking of farm trees seems well below potential, and fewer than half of interviewed owners deliberately manage farm trees for eventual sale as timber. Only 2.2 percent of gross farm revenue derives from tree sales, even though over half of surveyed farmers have sold trees to industrial buyers at least once. Constraints on production and sales of farm trees for timber include risks of damage to coffee and cacao; perceived incompatibilities with current farming practices; inadequate methods of classification and pricing of farm trees; and insufficient knowledge of the industrial uses of farm trees by agricultural extensionists. These limitations need to be addressed through a strategy of research, development, and information diffusion on selected demonstration farms.}, keywords = {agricultural extensionist, farm tree, pasture tree, shade trees, timber }, doi = {10.1007/BF00168260}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00168260}, author = {Michael F. Mussak and Jan G. Laarman} } @book {327, title = {Financial and economic analysis of agroforestry: Key issues}, series = {Discussion paper (University of East Anglia. School of Development Studies) no. 212}, year = {1989}, month = {June 1989}, pages = {77}, publisher = {University of East Anglia, School of Development Studies}, organization = {University of East Anglia, School of Development Studies}, address = {Norwich, UK}, abstract = {This is the summary and index of a paper dealing with cost-benefit analysis of agroforestry systems from an individual, household, institutional, and societal perspective. Included are the major steps needed to perform quantitative cost-benefit analysis and qualitative agroforestry issues. Also included is a note about prediction models used.}, keywords = {agroforestry}, isbn = {1-871546-62-1; 978-1-871546-62-0}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23672191}, author = {Michael Stocking and Jan Boj{\"o} and Nick O. J. Abel} } @conference {766, title = {Forestation and deforestation in Mexico: Community response}, booktitle = {Paper presented at Annual Meetings of the Society for Applied Anthropology, April 5-9, 1989, Santa Fe, NM}, year = {1989}, month = {April 1989}, publisher = {Society for Applied Anthropology}, organization = {Society for Applied Anthropology}, address = {Santa Fe, NM}, abstract = {Deforestation is a severe economic and environmental problem in Mexico, as elsewhere in the world. This paper presents comparative data of natural resource control by two communities located in different ecological zones in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. One community, Huitzo, in the valley of Oaxaca, has suffered much deforestation due to commercial and domestic uses as well as fire. Through local effort the community has begun a reforestation project to combat erosion and reduced water tables. The other community, Yavesia, in the northern mountains, still has a large virgin forest, due principally to the community{\textquoteright}s refusal to sell wood to paper companies. To further protect their resources, a local women{\textquoteright}s group has initiated the installation of wood-efficient clay stoves. The quality of improved stove designs is a much-debated issue and will be discussed further in this paper. The two projects will also be described and compared with the aim of extracting the important organizational success factors. (author).}, keywords = {Acacia, agroforestry, fuelwood, household technologies}, author = {Lisa Freeman} } @book {331, title = {Forestland for the people: A forest village project in northeast Thailand}, year = {1989}, month = {1989}, pages = {84}, publisher = {Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}, organization = {Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}, address = {Bangkok, Thailand}, abstract = {The purpose of this study is two-fold. The first is to provide a detailed analysis of the processes and achievements of an FAO-assisted project to rehabilitate a degraded area in the Khao Phy Luang National Reserved Forest in Northern Thailand through the community forestry approach. In this respect, the study is written for development planners and foresters in Thailand as a means of helping these national experts evaluate the results of their efforts in this area, and to make appropriate decisions regarding the expansion of the community forestry approach throughout rural Thailand. The second, more far-reaching purpose of the case study is to draw attention to elements of interantional relevance. Although it refers to a single, specific campaign, many of the experiences reported in the case study can be applied in a wide variety of socio-economic conditions. As a still relatively new concept, every community forestry effort has lessons to teach about forestry as a tool and a resource for rural development.}, keywords = {agroforestry, Thailand}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50628152}, author = {Stephen A. Dembner} } @book {332, title = {Forestry and food security}, series = {FAO forestry paper 90}, year = {1989}, month = {1989}, pages = {128}, publisher = {Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}, organization = {Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}, address = {Rome}, abstract = {This report summarizes the current state of understanding regarding the links between forestry and food security. It is the result of a series of investigations begun in 1985 in response to the widely felt concern that excessive deforestation is threatening not only the soil and water base essential for continued food production, but also the present and future availability of the many forest plants and animals that are sources of food.}, keywords = {agroforestry, Amazonia, cash crops, cloud forests, common property, erosion, fodder, fuelwood, gardens, fallows, gender, Ghana, household, mangroves, microclimate, plant foods, salinization, soil conservation, water conservation, wildlife , windbreaks, women, yields}, isbn = {92-5-102847-8, 978-92-5-102847-6}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20998704}, author = {Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)} } @book {334, title = {Forestry and nutrition: A reference manual}, year = {1989}, month = {1989}, pages = {v, 114}, publisher = {FAO, RAPA}, organization = {FAO, RAPA}, address = {Bangkok, Thailand}, abstract = {This document contains literature from a variety of relevant disciplines and includes material which may be useful for selecting specific forestry activities to strengthen food security. In the presentation of this bibliography, the subject areas in which more research is needed are highlighted.}, keywords = {animal foods, ethnobotany, ethnomedicine, fodder, fuelwood, plant foods, range and livestock management, traditional medicine, wildlife }, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/66373043}, author = {Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific} } @book {333, title = {Forestry and nutrition: A reference manual}, year = {1989}, month = {1989}, publisher = {FAO}, organization = {FAO}, address = {Bangkok, Thailand}, abstract = {The first section provides a brief overview of the links between forestry and nutrition and a review of the findings from the literature. This is followed by an annotated bibliography which includes 239 references. Subject and geographic indices are included to facilitate use of the bibliography. The purposes of this reference manual are to highlight what is known about the linkages between forestry and nutrition and to provide a guide for further research into this area. It is directed to foresters and nutritionists alike and draws on information from their respective literature as well as from other areas of relevant study. Although the reference manual focuses on nutrition and forestry in general, it is directed to those working on forestry and nutrition issues in developing countries, and thus, focuses on regions of the tropics and subtropics. (author)}, keywords = {agroforestry, conservation, ethnobotany, ethnomedicine, fodder, fuelwood, livestock, medicinal plants, plant foods, rural development, wildlife }, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/66373043}, author = {Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Regional Forestry Officer} } @article {569, title = {Form or function: A comparison of expert and novice judgments of similarity among fish}, journal = {American Anthropologist}, volume = {91}, year = {1989}, month = {December 1989}, pages = {866-889}, abstract = {Ethnobiologists debate whether folk biological classifiers are natural historians attending primarily to the morphology of organisms or are pragmatists concerned primarily with utility. We argue that this question is best understood as a problem in intracultural variation: the relative importance of form and function depends on who is asked to judge the similarity of organisms as well as how they are asked to judge it. We find that expert fishermen judge similarities among fish on both functional and morphological criteria, while novices judge on morphological criteria alone and thereby approach the scientific classification of fish more closely than experts. Experts also vary more than do novices, presumably because they control more different kinds of knowledge on which to base a similarity judgment.}, keywords = {ethnobiology, fish, morphology}, url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/681586}, author = {James S. Boster and Jeffrey C. Johnson} } @book {335, title = {Funding ecological and social destruction: The World Bank and International Monetary Fund}, year = {1989}, month = {[1989?]}, pages = {43 pp.}, publisher = {The [Bank Information] Center}, organization = {The [Bank Information] Center}, address = {Washington, DC}, abstract = {This book gives a brief history of The World Bank and its underlying purpose. It also examines the work done by The World Bank through case studies describing the work being done by them in several South American and African countries.}, keywords = {ecology}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/22205663}, author = {The Bank Information Center} } @article {557, title = {Factors determining the occurrence of the agroforestry system with Acacia mearnsii in Central Java}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {6}, year = {1988}, month = {February 1988}, pages = {119-135}, abstract = {In 1922, the colonial government introduced Acacia mearnsii in the tobacco-growing region of Wonosobo. Soon this species was accepted by the local people who developed an agroforestry system based on a rotation of A. mearnsii and agricultural crops. Now, the growing of the black wattle is becoming less popular. To study the prospects for this agroforestry system 143 farmers from 5 villages were interviewed. The functions of this agroforestry system are the production of fuelwood and bark (which contains tannin for the leather industry), soil conservation and soil improvement. The following factors affect A. mearnsii growing: population density (which affects farm size and demand for domestic fuelwood), tobacco-processing (which requires fuel), topography and commercialization. If current trends continue, the contribution of the functions of this agroforestry system to welfare will not be sufficient to compete successfully with subsistence and cash crops like potatoes and tobacco. Therefore, A. mearnsii cultivation is expected to decline further.}, keywords = {Acacia mearnsii, agroforestry, central Java, commercialization, farming system development, Indonesia}, doi = {10.1007/BF02344749}, url = {http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02344749}, author = {Lucinne M. Berenschot and Bram M. Filius and Soedarwono Hardjosoediro} } @article {558, title = {Fairness in irrigation development}, journal = {Agriculture and Human Values}, volume = {5}, year = {1988}, note = {This article from Agriculture and Human Values, 5 (1-2) listed independently.}, month = {December 1988}, pages = {61-68}, abstract = {There is in much of contemporary irrigation development a large paradox. Irrigation development, while contributing to productivity, frequently thwarts social justice-it either introduces incipient inequalities in access or it reinforces those that exist. More progressive irrigation development policies are being developed and tested in several countries. These new approaches give more attention to the role of local groups in governing irrigation systems while reducing the heavy-handed involvement of state agencies. These new approaches are seen as both consistent with achieving greater fairness in irrigation development as well as with the new fiscal realities of governments nearly everywhere. Supporting these new approaches are a set of institutions and individuals with nonengineering expertise who traditionally have not been defined as central to irrigation development.}, keywords = {development policy, irrigation, social justice, state agency, water access}, doi = {10.1007/BF02217177}, url = {http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02217177}, author = {E. Walter Coward Jr.} } @article {820, title = {Farmer strategies in regional agricultural change: The case of commercial potato production in Oxapampa}, year = {1988}, month = {September 1988}, institution = {International Potato Center (CIP), Social Science Department}, address = {Lima, Peru}, abstract = {

Regional agricultural systems are continually constituted and reconstituted by the strategies of individual farmers as they draw upon, and iteratively change, the resources to which they have access, and the constraints to which they are subject because of their personal experience and their membership of a particular social group. One important factor in regional agricultural change is the propensity of farmers to experiment with and change their agricultural strategies. The range of potential experiments is, however, limited by what the farmer conceives as possible. Moreover, the potential long-term success of such innovation depends upon the acquisition of accurate knowledge of the new crop and the environmental factors to which it is subject.

Examining the case of recent changes in potato farming in Oxapampa on the east slopes of the Andes, this paper demonstrates how this interplay between perceived possibilities, farmer experimentation and knowledge of the economic and ecological environment contributed to the rapid rise, and then fall, of potato cultivation. Implications both for the concept of adaptation and for the introduction of new crop technologies are discussed.

}, keywords = {Andes, ecology, Oxapampa, potato production}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/647893566}, author = {Anthony Bebbington} } @article {560, title = {Farming systems approaches to international technical cooperation in agriculture and rural life}, journal = {Agriculture and Human Values}, volume = {5}, year = {1988}, note = {This article from Agriculture and Human Values, 5 (1-2) listed independently.}, month = {December 1988}, pages = {24-34}, abstract = {A farming systems approach to development has meant many things over the past 15 years, depending on its institutional and ecological setting, its target populations, and the goals motivating its implementation. Despite the diversity of approaches, and the sometimes rancorous discussion over which was best and why, the approach is now recognized in many places as the only one that can identify and respond to the needs of limited resource farm families, especially those in marginal ecosystems. Involving an iterative process of diagnosis, design, testing and extension, the farming system approach to date has done more to change research objectives at national and international institutions than to change actual farmer practices. By legitimizing what limited resource farmers do and why they do it, a farming systems approach lends itself to policy analysis as well. Recent research in farming systems suggests greater attention should be payed to exogenous variables, including policy and infrastructure, as well as to development of technology that really responds to the felt needs of limited resource farmers in improving their level of living.}, keywords = {farming system approach, iterative process, limited resource, system approach, target population}, doi = {10.1007/BF02217174}, url = {http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02217174}, author = {Cornelia Butler Flora} } @book {325, title = {Feasibility study on small-farm production of gums, resins, exudates and other non-wood products}, series = {Multipurpose Tree Species Network Research Series Paper no. 4}, year = {1988}, month = {August 1988}, pages = {47}, publisher = {Winrock International (Forestry/Fuelwood Research and DevelopmentProject - F/FRED)}, organization = {Winrock International (Forestry/Fuelwood Research and DevelopmentProject - F/FRED)}, address = {Morrillton, AR}, abstract = {Although gums, resins, and exudates are the primary products targeted for study, the scope was expanded slightly to include certain extractives, oils, dyes, pesticides, and specialty chemicals that also offer opportunities for increased utilization. Omitted from primary consideration are substances mainly used for medicine, food or fodder. Within this framework there are still innumerable non-wood products of tropical forests that could be documented here. Many of these are referred to in the compilation of species and products, but others of minor importance are omitted. The scope of the present study is further defined by the tree species considered as sources of the above-mentioned chemicals. Three categories are included: priority MPTS, additional MPTS important over narrower distribution ranges or under specific cultural situations, and specialty trees.}, keywords = {agroforestry}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/24777719}, author = {James W. Hanover} } @book {322, title = {Family profiles of selected functional groups in Palawan}, year = {1987}, month = {March-April 1987}, pages = {102}, publisher = {University of the Phillipines}, organization = {University of the Phillipines}, address = {Los Banos, Philippines}, abstract = {Undertaken as part of FAO/TCP/PHI project no.6652: Training to integrate nutrition considerations into agriculture and rural development projects. This study is an attempt to use simple ethnographic methods to study the coping mechanisms of families belonging to different occupational groups in Palawan. Thirty families representing six main occupational groups -- swidden horticulturalists, stewards, small rainfed farmers, small irrigated farmers, fishermen and landless laborers -- served as the informants in this study. Within each occupational groups, differnt family types were also represented, i.e. young vs. old families, recent migrant vs. old migrant, and ethnic minorities in the particular locality.}, keywords = {aquatic resources}, author = {Virginia N. Sandoval and Ferdinand Larona and Grace Puerto} } @inbook {477, title = {Farm forestry}, booktitle = {Sustainability issues in agricultural development: Proceedings of the Seventh Agriculture Sector Symposium}, year = {1987}, note = {See also: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/686471468764390337/Sustainability-issues-in-agricultural-development-proceedings-of-the-seventh-agriculture-sector-symposium}, month = {1987}, pages = {211-222}, publisher = {World Bank}, organization = {World Bank}, address = {Washington, DC}, abstract = {

The focus of this paper is on managed tree resources outside the forest. It is principally concerned with trees grown on-farm by individuals and with woodlots managed by user groups as a common property resource. It excludes those situations where tree products are still harvested from unmanaged open access resources.

A feature of most systems covered by this definition, which distinguishes them from conventional forestry, is the integration of the trees into predominantly agricultural land use patterns. Other distinguishing features are the small scale, the orientation to meeting local needs and the involvement of the users in the management of the resource.

Until recently, the issues relating to management of such tree resources received remarkably little attention. The mandate of most forest services and forestry research organizations confined their attention to forest areas, and agricultural services were concerned only with those tree species which had been domesticated and adopted as agricultural crops. During the past ten to twenty years, the importance of tree products in the rural economy, and of local tree resources to supply those products, has become widely recognized with the growing attention to the place of the rural sector in the development process, environmental issues, and rising energy costs.

The management of farm and communal resources is as yet only imperfectly understood because it has attracted attention only recently. By comparison with other aspects of developing country agriculture, a severe shortage of quantitative information exists. However, experience is accumulating rapidly, and now allows us to formulate a number of propositions about some of the issues involved.

}, keywords = {agricultural conservation, agroforestry, aquatic resources, biodiversity, natural resource management}, isbn = {0-8213-0909-9}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/15791230}, author = {J. E. M. Arnold}, editor = {Ted J. Davis and Isabelle A. Schirmer} } @article {561, title = {Farming, fishing, and fire in the history of the upper R{\'\i}o Negro region of Venezuela}, journal = {Human Ecology}, volume = {15}, year = {1987}, month = {March 1987}, pages = {1-26}, abstract = {Studies of R{\'\i}o Negro subsistence farming and fishing activities are used to estimate the human carrying capacity for the region and the likely pattern of human land-use during prehistory. Ceramic evidence suggests human presence in the region more than 3,000 years ago. Traditional farming is labor intensive and relatively unproductive. Nevertheless, farmers achieve an energy return of 15.2:1, and produce 2,600 kcal per work hour. Fish are the major protein source, but fish catch per unit of effort and fish yield per hectare of floodplain are very low; fishermen are probably exploiting local fish resources very close to their limit. The low human population density would suggest that the R{\'\i}o Negro forest has been relatively undisturbed. Nevertheless, charcoal is widespread and abundant in forest soils. This charcoal is probably from anthropogenic or natural wildfires. These results suggest a much more complex history for Amazonia than previously thought. (author)}, keywords = {agriculture, Amazon, energetics, fire, fishing, subsistence agriculture, Venezuela, wildfires}, doi = {10.1007/BF00891369}, url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/4602829}, author = {Kathleen Clark and Christopher Uhl} } @book {326, title = {Feasibility study on tissue culture for multipurpose forest tree species}, series = {Multipurpose Tree Species Network Research Series Paper no. 1}, year = {1987}, month = {July 1987}, pages = {78}, publisher = {Winrock International-F/FRED}, organization = {Winrock International-F/FRED}, address = {Bangkok, Thailand}, abstract = {This report is a feasibility study on the tissue culture of multipurpose forest tree species. It covers the present status of tissue culture of F/FRED priority species, prospects of tissue culture in research and development and offers specific recommendations for the use of tissue culture. Other important and at times viable aspects such as breeding programs, provenance trials, etc., are generally not touched upon except when they tie in with the tissue culture programs.}, keywords = {agroforestry, multipurpose trees}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23175968}, author = {Paiboolya Gavinlertvatana and A. C. Matheson and Eng Peng Sim} } @article {735, title = {Fuelwood, agroforestry and rural women: An overview with African emphasis}, year = {1987}, month = {April 6, 1987}, address = {Washington, DC}, abstract = {Fuelwood and rural women should be closely tied to agroforestry in the Third World. Fuelwood scarcity poses problems for rural women. Time lost in gathering wood, rising wood costs, poorer soils, food shortage for small farm animals, less fuel for market industries, and shorter cooking time result. Diminishing natural forests mean fewer important non-wood products from the forests. Some recommendations are made.}, keywords = {agroforestry, fuelwood}, author = {Hallie Dozier} } @proceedings {474, title = {Forestry networks}, year = {1986}, month = {September 1986}, publisher = {Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development}, address = {Morrillton, AR}, abstract = {Rapid depletion of forest reserves and the growing scarcity of wood for cooking and tree products for other household uses have emerged in recent years as a growing concern of development planners and specialists in most countries and development institutions. In recognition of this AID identified forestry research as one of its top four priorities for long-term commitment.}, keywords = {agroforestry, fuelwood}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/14412966}, author = {F/FRED Forestry Networks Workshop}, editor = {Adams, Norma and Robert K. Dixon} } @article {565, title = {Food, coffee and Casuarina: An agroforestry system from the Papua New Guinea highlands}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {2}, year = {1985}, month = {December 1985}, pages = {273-279}, abstract = {An agroforestry farming system is described from the Papua New Guina highlands (1400 to 2100 m) that has been developed by village growers since about 1960 and has expanded rapidly since about 1970. Major components of the system are numerous species of annual and perennial food crops (especially bananas), arabica coffee and Casuarina oligodon. It provides food, a cash crop and timber for construction and fuel. It is likely that returns on labour inputs are very favourable, but no formal assessments have been made. Evaluation of the system as a whole, and research on certain key components (Casuarina ecology, banana cultivars, timing of operations) are suggested as high priority areas for systematic studies.}, keywords = {agriculture, Casuarina, coffee, food crops, forestry, highlands, Papua New Guinea}, doi = {10.1007/BF00147038}, url = {http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00147038}, author = {R. Michael Bourke} } @article {683, title = {The fuelwood production of wooded savanna fallows in the Sudan zone of Mali}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {3}, year = {1985}, month = {March 1985}, pages = {15-23}, abstract = {The characteristics of a fallow farming system in the Sudan zone of Mali are outlined. Sorghum and bulrush millet are the staple crops (70\% of the cultivated area); groundnuts are the cash-crop (25\% of the cultivated area). On average 7 trees are kept per ha (crown cover 7\%), of which 60\% are sheabutter trees. Various productive and environmental functions of fallow periods are pointed out. Factors influencing the fallow vegetation are summarized. A concise description of a fallow vegetation succession is given. Data are presented on the shrub layer structure (mainly coppice) and wood production in relation to grazing intensity. It is calculated that 30-50\% of the fuelwood consumption of small-scale farmers can be supplied by their fallows.}, keywords = {fallow system, fallow vegetation, fuelwood production, Mali, Sudan zone, trees}, doi = {10.1007/BF00045735}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00045735}, author = {F. M. J. Ohler} } @book {323, title = {Farm and community forestry}, series = {Energy Information Programme Technical Report no. 3}, year = {1984}, month = {1984}, pages = {236}, publisher = {Earthscan, International Institute for Environment and Development}, organization = {Earthscan, International Institute for Environment and Development}, address = {London; Washington, DC}, abstract = {This is a portion (Chapters 2 through 6) of the book. Chapter 2, "Traditions of Tree Cultivation" discusses the old and widespread tradition of agroforestry. The use of trees to increase agricultural productivity and to enrich the soil is an ancient practice. Trees are often used for fodder, windbreaks, boundaries, etc. Trees also provide cash crops (coconuts, rubber, gum arabic, commercial firewood, etc.). Chapter 3, "The Causes of Tree Depletion" covers the causes of tree depletion. Trees are being cut down at accellerating rates in order to provide firewood and agricultural land. This can be constructively done under the proper circumstances, but often unsuitable land is being left open for erosion. The basic problem is that human and animal populations are growing at a faster rate than trees can match. Organized efforts to combat the problem have thus far succeeded only in revealing its magnitude. Chapter 4, "Constraints on Tree Growing" describes some constraints to tree planting in developing nations. Some farmers believe that trees harbor insects or harmful birds. In other localities, a shortage of trees is not yet apparent. Communal ownership of land may make people reluctant to take responsibility for trees. In semiarid areas (where trees might do the most good), trees are hardest to plant and care for. Chapter 5, "Farm Forestry" discusses the commercial growing of trees on private land. Wealthier farmers can afford large-scale operations with high start-up costs. Poorer farmers might raise a few trees for lumber or nuts, etc., if the cost is negligible. Cash incentives and credit plans might enable more farmers to grow more trees. A farm forestry plan must (1) provide support to all classes of farmers, (2) provide a clear social and environmental benefit, and (3) avoid harming the local job situation (trees can be less labor-intensive than other crops). Chapter 6, "Tree Growing for Family Uses" examines "family forestry" (tree-based subsistance farming). Such operations are generally simple to set up but must meet some locally perceived need. It may take years for trees to prove themselves as moneymakers.}, keywords = {coppicing, fuelwood, pollarding, traditional agroforestry, trees}, isbn = {0-905347-53-6; 978-0-905347-53-0}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11877494}, author = {Gerald Foley and G.W. Barnard} } @article {734, title = {Fuelwood, agro-forestry, and natural resource management: The development significance of land tenure and other resource management/utilization systems}, year = {1984}, note = {Prepared for U.S. AID/PPC/PDPR under Purchase Order OTR-0000-0-00-3441-00, April 1984}, month = {April 1984}, publisher = {Institute for Development Anthropology}, address = {Binghamton, New York}, abstract = {

Traditions of tree planting vary. Some societies saw no need to plant any trees, others planted a few for fruit, shade or poles, a few others had elaborate agro-forestry systems, making effective use of many species. In nearly all societies, people knew a great deal about trees and their properties, as demonstrated by the many detailed ethnobotanical studies. (author)

Looked at in this paper are the topics of tree planting - who plants and why, factors in tree planting, seed supply, soil, rainfall, pests, etc., along with a list of trees planted in different parts of Africa.
This paper contains part (G)-Tree Planting-of the manuscript Fuelwood, Agro-Forestry, and Natural Resource Management: The Development Significance of Land Tenure and Other Resource Management/Utilization Systems. This paper also contains a working bibliography for the manuscript; however, one page is missing.

}, keywords = {Africa, agroforestry, ethnobotany, forestry, fuelwood, land administration, land tenure, natural resources, Tanzania, trees}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4433438576}, author = {David Brokensha and Alfonso H. Peter Castro and Manasendu Kundu and Barry Hewlett} } @article {567, title = {Forest preference in swidden agriculture: Traditional knowledge and utilization of biotic diversity}, journal = {Tropical Ecology}, volume = {24}, year = {1983}, month = {January 1983}, pages = {122-142}, abstract = {This paper addresses the question of a preference for primary vs. secondary forest among swidden agriculturalists, using data gathered among the tribal Kantu{\textquoteright} of West Kalimantan, Indonesia. The Kantu{\textquoteright} have traditionally made a distinction between the two types of forest, based on the differing inputs, outputs and chronologies of swiddens that are cut from them. Historically this distinction was important to the Kantu{\textquoteright} because farming of primary forest bore decisive economic and military advantages within the then context of chronic intertribal warfare. This distinction has maintained its importance into the postwar, contemporary era, although for different reasons. Today the average Kantu{\textquoteright} household farms both primary and secondary forest, in part because the former has jural advantages whereas the latter has economic advantages, but largely so as to exploit the differences between the two. This is a major element in a strategy designed first, to minimize risk and stablize the return on labor, and second, to intensify utilization of this labor.}, keywords = {swiddens}, url = {https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265601278_Forest_Preference_in_Swidden_Agriculture}, author = {Michael R. Dove} } @conference {767, title = {Fuelwood production in traditional farming systems}, booktitle = {Paper presented at ESCAP/FAO/UNEP Expert Group Meeting on Fuelwood and Charcoal 1981, Nairobi, Kenya}, series = {Energy Resources Development Series no. 24}, year = {1982}, month = {May 5-11, 1981}, pages = {53-59}, publisher = {United Nations}, organization = {United Nations}, address = {New York}, abstract = {The purpose of this paper is to present and discuss some examples of rural forestry and provide a general framework for its improvement and intensification with fuelwood production as a major aim.}, keywords = {agroforestry, fuelwood}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11582957}, author = {Ben Salem and Tran van Nao} } @inbook {874, title = {From grain crops to tree crops in the Cuyunon swidden system}, booktitle = {Adaptive strategies and change in Philippine swidden-based societies}, year = {1981}, month = {1981}, pages = {91-104}, publisher = {Forest Research Institute College}, organization = {Forest Research Institute College}, address = {Laguna, Philippines}, abstract = {This paper concerns one possible answer to the question: What else can shifting cultivators do for a living that will allow them to exploit their environments on an ecologically-sound, sustained-yield basis, and yet satisfy both their subsistence needs and their market wants? The answer is arboriculture, or tree-crop farming -- cultivation of coconuts, bananas, fruit trees, and the like.}, keywords = {agroforestry, Philippines, swiddens}, url = {https://www.worldcat.org/title/10341908}, author = {James F. Eder}, editor = {Harold Olofson} } @conference {872, title = {Forest conversation practices in Papua New Guinea}, booktitle = {Traditional conservation in Papua New Guinea: Implications for today. Proceedings of a Conference Organized by the Office of Environment and Conservation and the Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research in Port Moresby [Papua New Guinea], 27-31 October, 1980}, series = {Monograph no. 16}, year = {1980}, month = {Oct. 27-31, 1980}, pages = {203-216}, publisher = {Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research}, organization = {Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research}, address = {Boroko, Papua New Guinea}, abstract = {This document looks at the forest conservation practices of native Papua New Guineans. It describes past practices of forest product harvesting (including: timber, wildlife, fish, other food products, and assorted other resources) and swidden agriculture and compares them to current practices. It discusses the implications of these past practices on today{\textquoteright}s system of resource management.}, keywords = {aquatic resources, forest conservation, Papua New Guinea}, url = {https://www.worldcat.org/title/10090361}, author = {Colin De{\textquoteright}A th}, editor = {Louise Morauta and John Pernetta and William Heaney} } @article {563, title = {Fishery resource use in a subarctic Indian community}, journal = {Human Ecology}, volume = {5}, year = {1977}, month = {1977}, pages = {289-307}, abstract = {Cree Indians of Fort George, James Bay, northern Canada, maintain a large and successful subsistence fishery. Methods used in the fishery, seasons and locations of catch, and yield levels were studied, together with the population biology two sea-run Coregonus species, cisco and whitefish, that dominate the catch. The fishery was characterized by a high degree of order, social regulation of the fishing effort and the gillnet mesh size, and practices that were identified as adaptations to the subarctic ecosystem. Fishing methods used permit the Cree to control the magnitude of the harvest and the species and size composition of the catch. There is evidence that fishers can alter the scarcity-abundance patterns of the fish stocks, and have a biologically measurable effect on the populations.}, keywords = {American Indians, Cree Indians, fishery management, Native Americans, subsistence resources}, url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/4602422}, author = {Fikret Berkes} } @article {562, title = {Fence and barrier plants in warm climates}, journal = {Kew Bulletin}, volume = {1}, year = {1946}, month = {1946}, pages = {51-87}, abstract = {A comprehensive listing of plants best used for hedges in various regions and climates.}, keywords = {agroforestry, Dutch polders, hedge plants, Populus, veneer fruit boxes}, doi = {10.2307/4109287}, url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/4109287}, author = {F. N. Howes} }