@conference {890, title = {Knowledge systems in agroforestry}, booktitle = {Proceedings of the Workshop on Research Methodologies and Applications for Pacific Island Agroforestry July 16-20, 1990, Kolonia, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia}, series = {General technical report PSW-GTR-140}, year = {1993}, month = {1993}, pages = {75-77}, publisher = {U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station (Berkeley, CA)}, organization = {U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station (Berkeley, CA)}, address = {Albany, CA}, abstract = {

Pacific Islands agroforestry has evolved into sustainable, diverse and productive land use systems in many areas. We marvel at these systems, and the scientific world is trying to catch up with the traditional knowledge.

At the same time, Pacific Islands farmers are abandoning their agroforestry systems in great numbers. It is mainly intensified agriculture for cash crop production that follows. Soil erosion and soil fertility deficiencies are close companions of this intensification.

Why do land use systems that have been operative for centuries disappear so easily? Can \"modern\" agroforestry systems lead to the destruction of \"traditional\" ones? The paper explores the importance of knowledge systems in agroforestry innovations. (author)

}, url = {https://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr140/psw_gtr140.pdf}, author = {Wieland K{\"u}nzel} } @article {601, title = {Karit{\'e} (Vitellaria paradoxa) and n{\'e}r{\'e} (Parkia biglobosa) associated with crops in South Mali}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {18}, year = {1992}, month = {May 1992}, pages = {89-105}, abstract = {

The effect of two tree species, karit{\'e} (Vitellaria paradoxa) and n{\'e}r{\'e} (Parkia biglobosa) on soil condition, development and production of cotton, sorghum and pearl millet, main crops in South Mali, has been investigated.

The soil under the trees is slightly richer (organic matter content and several cations) compared to adjacent tree-less sites. Also tree-specific effects exist.

Soil enrichment, however, is mainly a matter of redistribution of locally available nutrient resources.

Of the six associations studied, only karit{\'e}-cotton shows no tree-induced reduction in crop production. All other associations suffer greatly from reduced crop outputs caused by the trees, usually in the order of 60\%.

There are at least two reasons that explain tree-induced yield reduction. Because of increased humidity in the immediate surroundings of trees, in both soil and air, lower numbers of crop plants survive up to maturity, presumably because plants are attacked by fungi. Secondly, crop plants that mature show reduced output because of inter-specific competition for light and nutrients.

In case of n{\'e}r{\'e}, in order to minimize the trees\&$\#$39; negative influence lopping is advised. Such practice, however, is less suitable in case of karit{\'e}, because of its assumed lower potential to regenerate, as compared to n{\'e}r{\'e}.

}, keywords = {agriculture, Butyrospermum paradoxum, cotton, forestry, Mali, Parkia biglobosa, pearl millet, sorghum, tree/crop interface, Vitellaria paradoxa, West Africa}, doi = {10.1007/BF00115407}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00115407}, author = {L. J. M. Kater and S. Kante and Arnoud Budelman} } @book {356, title = {Keepers of the forest: Land management alternatives in southeast Asia}, series = {Kumarian Press library of management for development}, year = {1990}, month = {December 1990}, pages = {289}, publisher = {Ateneo De Manila University Press; Kumarian Press}, organization = {Ateneo De Manila University Press; Kumarian Press}, address = {Manilia, Philipinnes; West Hartford, CT}, abstract = {

Contains following chapters:

  1. The evolution of forest management systems in southeast Asia (Mark Poffenberger);
  2. A history of state forest management in Java (Nancy Lee Peluso);
  3. The changing upland landscape of the northern Philippines (Percy E. Sajise and Elizabeth A. Omegan);
  4. Forces and policy issues affecting forest use in northeast Thailand (James A. Hafner);
  5. Facilitating change in forestry bureaucracies (Mark Poffenberger);
  6. Diagnostic tools for social forestry; (Jefferson Fox)
  7. Communal forest leases as a tenurial option in the Philippine uplands (Luzviminda B. Cornista and Eva F. Escue);
  8. Identifying appropriate agroforestry technologies in Java (Carol Stoney and Mulyadi Bratamihardj);
  9. Evolving management systems in Thailand (Kamon Pragtong and David E. Thoma);
  10. Migrant farmers and the shrinking forests of northeast Thailand (James A. Hafner and Yaoxvalak Apichatvullop);
  11. Reorienting forest management on Java (Nancy Lee Peluso, Mark Poffenberger and Frances Seymour);
  12. Community participation for conservation area management in the Cyclops Mountains, Irian Jaya, Indonesia (Arthur Mitchell, Yance de Fretes, and Mark Poffenberger);
  13. The growth of the Philippine social forest program (Christopher Gibbs, Edwin Payuan, and Romulo del Castill);
  14. Social forestry in Cebu (Salve B. Borlagdan); and
  15. Steps towards establishing collaborative management (Mark Poffenberger).
}, keywords = {agroforestry, common property, commons, community forestry, cooperatives, deforestation, empowerment, forest management, forestry, land tenure, land use, land use, rural, participatory research, social aspects, southeast Asia, trees}, isbn = {971-550-010-2; 9789715500104}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20263005}, editor = {Mark Poffenberger} } @article {599, title = {Kandyan gardens of Sri Lanka}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {5}, year = {1987}, month = {June 1987}, pages = {123-137}, abstract = {Kandyan Gardens (KG) or Kandyan Forest Gardens (KFG) of Sri Lanka represent a traditional system of perennial cropping which has been in practice for several centuries. It is esseentially a system of mixed cropping with a variety of economically valuable groups of tree crops such as spices, fruits, medicinal plants and timber species. However, these systems are usually in small homestead holdings and are practiced in only a few districts. KFG is different from other homegarden systems mostly in terms of the variety of plants grown. Moreover the farmers who practice this system enjoy a {\textquoteright}relatively better{\textquoteright} level of living by virtue of returns from both the economic cash crops and the subsistence products. Presumably, with improved management, the system has the potential for increased production and better returns. This paper examines the situation with respect to the KG system and endeavours to identify the directions of research for the improvement of the system. (author)}, keywords = {coffee, intercropping, labor, land use patterns, mixed cropping, pepper}, doi = {10.1007/BF00047517}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00047517}, author = {V. J. Jacob and W. S. Alles} } @article {600, title = {Karen agro-forestry: Processes, functions, and implications for socio-economic, demographic, and environmental change in northern Thailand}, journal = {Mountain Research and Development}, volume = {3}, year = {1983}, month = {November 1983}, pages = {326-337}, abstract = {

Agro-forestry uses trees in combination with non-tree crops to intensify land use in forested areas. Optimal use of agro-forestry in a development programme requires a thorough knowledge of traditional land ownership and use if the area\&$\#$39;s inhabitants are to be integrated successfully into the plan.

The Karen people, the largest highland minority group in Thailand, have traditionally used a conservative short cultivation-long fallow swidden system. Land resources are loosely held by the community, which depends heavily on reciprocal exchange labour to cultivate family farms, and volunteer labour for the communal tasks necessary to protect village lands from fire and other hazards. The swidden system resembles agro-forestry in that the farmers encourage forest regeneration by allowing regrowth from stumps and coppiced trees in cultivated fields, and by controlling fire in fallow swiddens. Trees are used for construction and domestic fuel, and to bring nutrients where they can be used (as ash) to fertilize rice and a wide variety of non-tree crops. Swiddens are cultivated with minimal disturbance to the soil. With low population density the system sustained a subsistence economy for hundreds of years without major environmental deterioration.

In recent years the system has been destabilized. Most development projects have not been integrated into existing land-use systems.

Agro-forestry techniques have not generally been applied to increase swidden productivity. Extensive reforestation projects in swidden land areas have reduced the amount of land available to Karens at the same time as population has grown due to decline in mortality and migration into the hills. Commercialization of the subsistence economy has led to a decline in the availability of reciprocal exchange labour. Increased demand for forest resources has led to decrease in security of tenure for swiddens and other communally held land. Karens are now placing greater emphasis on irrigated fields, while the swidden system has tended to deteriorate, with more frequent cultivation and shorter fallow, and less adequate control of fire.

L\&$\#$39;agro-foresterie consid{\`e}re les arbres comme une ressource au m{\^e}me titre que d\&$\#$39;autres plantes cultiv{\'e}es, pour permettre d\&$\#$39;intensifier l\&$\#$39;exploitation du sol dans les r{\'e}gions foresti{\`e}res. L\&$\#$39;utilisation optimale de l\&$\#$39;agro-foresteire dans le cadre d\&$\#$39;un programme de d{\'e}veloppement n{\'e}c{\'e}ssite une connaissance profonde des modes traditionnels affectant la propri{\'e}t{\'e} et l\&$\#$39;utilisation des terres, si l\&$\#$39;on veut int{\'e}grer avec succ{\`e}s les habitants de la r{\'e}gion dans le plan g{\'e}n{\'e}ral. Les Karens constituent le groupement minoritaire le plus important dans les r{\'e}gions montagneuses de la Tha{\"\i}lande. Par tradition, ils utilisent un syst{\`e}me conservatif de culture sur br{\^u}lis caracteris{\'e} par de courtes p{\'e}riodes de culture et de longues p{\'e}riodes en friche. Les ressources agraires appartiennent plus ou moins\ {\`a} la collectivit{\'e} qui compte beaucoup sur l\&$\#$39;{\'e}change r{\'e}ciproque de la main-d\&$\#$39;oeuvre pour cultiver les terres familiales, et sur la main-d\&$\#$39;oeuvre volontaire pour effectuer les t{\^a}ches n{\'e}cessaires\ {\`a} la protection du village et des terres avoisinantes contre le feu et autres dangers. Le syst{\`e}me de culture sur br{\^u}lis ressemble {\`a} l\&$\#$39;agro-foresterie du fait que les fermiers encouragent la r{\'e}g{\'e}n{\'e}ration de la for{\^e}t, en permettant aux souches et aux taillis de repousser dans les champs cultiv{\'e}s, et en utilisant judicieusement le feu dans les br{\^u}lis en friche. Les arbres sont utilis{\'e}s pour la construction et pour le chauffage domestique, et sous forme de cendres pour fertilizer les champs de riz et d\&$\#$39;autres plantes cultiv{\'e}es. Les br{\^u}lis sont cultiv{\'e}s de mani{\`e}re\ {\`a} minimiser les perturbations du sols. Combin{\'e} {\`a} une faible densit{\'e} d{\'e}mographique, ce syst{\`e}me a pu supporter un r{\'e}gime d\&$\#$39;auto-consommation pendant des centaines d\&$\#$39;ann{\'e}es, sans d{\'e}t{\'e}rioration majeure de l\&$\#$39;environnement. Ce syst{\`e}me s\&$\#$39;est d{\'e}stabilis{\'e} au cours des derni{\`e}res ann{\'e}es, du fait que la plupart des projets de d{\'e}veloppement ne se sont pas integr{\'e}s dans les syst{\`e}mes existants d\&$\#$39;utilisation des terres. En g{\'e}n{\'e}ral, les techniques agro-foresti{\`e}res n\&$\#$39;ont pas {\'e}t{\'e} appliqu{\'e}es pour augmenter la productivit{\'e} des br{\^u}lis. Des projets intensifs de reboisement dans les zones de br{\^u}lis ont r{\'e}duit la superficie des terres disponibles aux Karens, alors que leur population s\&$\#$39;est accrue du fait d\&$\#$39;un moindre taux de mortalit{\'e} et d\&$\#$39;une migration vers les r{\'e}gions montagneuses. La commercialisation de leur r{\'e}gime d\&$\#$39;autoconsommation a men{\'e} {\`a} un declin de la main-d\&$\#$39;oeuvre disponible pour les {\'e}changes r{\'e}ciproques. Une demande plus importante pour les produits forestiers a diminu{\'e} la stabilit{\'e} de la structure agraire en ce qui concerne les br{\^u}llis et autres terres r{\'e}gies par la collectivit{\'e}. Les Karens accordent maintenant plus d\&$\#$39;importance aux terres irrigu{\'e}es, alors que la culture sur br{\^u}llis tend\ {\`a} se d{\'e}grader (p{\'e}riodes de culture plus longues compar{\'e}es aux p{\'e}riodes en friche, et utilisation moins judicieuse du feu).

Agro-Forstwirtschaft verwendet um die Landnutzung bewaldeter Fl{\"a}chen zu intensivieren, B{\"a}ume zusammen mit Feldfr{\"u}chten. Durch ein Entwicklungsprogramm optimierte Agro-Forstwirtschaft erfordert genaue Kenntnis der herk{\"o}mmlichen Landnutzung und Besitzverh{\"a}ltnisse, will man die Einwohner erfolgreich in die Planung einbeziehen. Die Karen Bev{\"o}lkerung, die gr{\"o}sste Minderheit der Hochlandbewohner Thailands, hat seit jeher ein System benutzt, bei dem nach einer kurzen Anbauzeit eine lange Brachperiode mit Roden und Brennen folgt. Landressourcen werden mehr oder weniger von der Gemeinde verwaltet, die, um Familienbesitzungen zu bestellen, stark von gegenseitigem Arbeitskr{\"a}fteaustausch abh{\"a}ngt. Daneben ist freiwillige Arbeit f{\"u}r Gemeindeaufgaben notwendig, um das kommunale Land vor Feuer und anderen Gefahren zu sch{\"u}tzen. Das System des Rodens und Brennens {\"a}hnelt der Agro-Forstwirtschaft darin, dass die Bauern auf bebauten Feldern neuen Baumwuchs aus St{\"u}mpfen und Unterholz zulassen, und das Feuer auf das Brachland beschr{\"a}nken. B{\"a}ume werden als Baumaterial und Brennholz benutzt, ausserdem liefern sie (in Form von Asche) N{\"a}hrstoffe, die Felder mit Reis und anderen Feldfr{\"u}chten d{\"u}ngen. Roden- und Brennfl{\"a}chen werden mit geringer Bodenbeeintr{\"a}chtigung bestellt. Bei niedriger Bev{\"o}lkerungsdichte konnte das System {\"u}ber Jahrhunderte ohne grosse Umweltverschlechterung eine gleichbleibende Selbstversorger{\"o}konomie aufrechterhalten. Unl{\"a}ngst jedoch wurde das System instabil. Die meisten Entwicklungsprojekte wurden nicht in bestehende Landnutzungssysteme integriert. Allgemein wurden agro-forstwirtschaftliche Techniken zur Ertragssteigerung beim Roden- und Brennsystem nicht angewendet. Der Landanteil, der den Karen zur Verf{\"u}gung steht, ist durch umfangreiche Aufforstungsprojekte zur{\"u}ckgegangen, w{\"a}hrend gleichzeitig die Bev{\"o}lkerungszahl durch Zur{\"u}ckgehen der Sterblichkeit und Umsiedelung in die Berge gestiegen ist. Kommerzialisierung der Selbstversorger{\"o}konomie f{\"u}hrte zu einem R{\"u}ckgang in der Verf{\"u}gbarkeit von Austauscharbeitskr{\"a}ften. Zunehmender Bedarf an Waldressourcen hat ausserdem zur Verunsicherung der Besitzverh{\"a}ltnisse des Roden- und Brennlandes und anderer kommunaler L{\"a}ndereien gef{\"u}hrt. Die Karen legen jetzt mehr Wert darauf, ihre Felder zu bew{\"a}ssern; dadurch werden sie h{\"a}ufiger bestellt, die Zeit der Brache ist k{\"u}rzer, aber die Feuergefahr ist h{\"o}her, w{\"a}hrend sich das System des Rodens und Brennens verschlechtert hat.

}, keywords = {agroforestry, land tenure, rice, shifting cultivation}, doi = {10.2307/3673036}, url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/3673036}, author = {Peter Kunstadter} }