@book {410, title = {Tropical forest conservation and development: A bibliography}, year = {1994}, month = {1994}, publisher = {Forestry Library, University of Minnesota}, organization = {Forestry Library, University of Minnesota}, address = {St Paul, MN}, abstract = {This book is a bibliography containing citations on forest resources, deforestation, conservation and sustainable development, indigenous peoples, management, policy, and planning, trade and industrial development, nontimber forest products, research, education, training, and history.}, keywords = {agroforestry, fuelwood, trees}, author = {Jean Albrecht} } @article {843, title = {Traditional ecological knowledge, biodiversity, resilience and sustainability}, year = {1993}, note = {

Later published as:

Berkes F., Folke C., Gadgil M. (1994) Traditional Ecological Knowledge, Biodiversity, Resilience and Sustainability. In: Perrings C.A., M{\"a}ler KG., Folke C., Holling C.S., Jansson BO. (eds) Biodiversity Conservation. Ecology, Economy \& Environment, vol 4. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1006-8_15

}, month = {1993}, institution = {Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics}, address = {Stockholm, Sweden}, abstract = {Traditional peoples who depended on their local ecosystems for their essential needs, have accumulated by trial-and-error a rich body of local environmental knowledge, and in several cases elaborated resource management systems, and developed institutions appropriate for implementing these systems. Biodiversity conservation appears to be integral to many traditional management systems from tropical forests to coastal fisheries. For example, some groups manipulate the local landscape to augment its heterogeneity, use conservation "rules of thumb" to help use species-rich communities sustainable, and intergrate the production of several multispecies systems. Thus, self-interest of traditional peoples has been key to biodiversity maintenance. As traditional peoples are integrated into the global economy and come under various pressures, they often lose their resource base, and in the long run, their knowledge systems, social institutions, and their world view which shapes their relations with the environment. The process of decoupling of traditional peoples from their resource base is likely to reduce the resilience of their social systems, as well as their local ecosystems through biodiversity loss. We make the argument in this chapter that the two are related, and the reduction of resilience will make both social and ecological systems more fragile. One challenge for biodiversity conservation is to learn from the knowledge-practice-belief complex of traditional peoples. But a perhaps more important challenge is to implement elements of it in "new TEK" systems which allow feedbacks from the environment, and respond to them in a more resilient way than do current day management practices. (author)}, author = {Fikret Berkes and Carl Folke and Madhav Gadgil} } @conference {805, title = {Traditional ecological knowledge in perspective}, booktitle = {Traditional ecological knowledge: Concepts and cases}, year = {1993}, month = {March 1993}, pages = {1-10}, publisher = {Winnepeg, Manitoba, Canada}, organization = {Winnepeg, Manitoba, Canada}, address = {International Program on Traditional Ecological Knowledge/IDRC}, abstract = {This paper deals with the concept of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). It outlines a definition of TEK and the spread of the idea. Included is a section on the similarities and differences between indigenous science and Western Science. Also included is a section on the practical applications/importance of TEK.}, keywords = {ecology, indigenous knowledge}, url = {https://library.umac.mo/ebooks/b10756577a.pdf}, author = {Fikret Berkes}, editor = {Julian T. Inglis} } @book {411, title = {Tropical forest conservation and development: A bibliography}, series = {Manual (Environmental and Natural Resources Policy and Training Project) no. 1}, year = {1993}, month = {[1993]}, pages = {250}, publisher = {EPAT/MUCIA-Research \& Training, University of Wisconsin{\textemdash}Madison}, organization = {EPAT/MUCIA-Research \& Training, University of Wisconsin{\textemdash}Madison}, address = {Madison, WI}, abstract = {This book is a bibliography containing citations on forest resources, deforestation, conservation and sustainable development, indigenous peoples, management, policy, and planning, trade and industrial development, nontimber forest products, research, education, training, and history.}, keywords = {agroforestry, fuelwood, trees}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28478635}, author = {Jean Albrecht} } @article {696, title = {The T{\textquoteright}OLCHE{\textquoteright}, a Maya system of communally managed forest belts: The causes and consequences of its disappearance}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {18}, year = {1992}, month = {May 1992}, pages = {149-177}, abstract = {

The T\&$\#$39;OLCHE\&$\#$39; is a protected forest belt about 10\–20 m wide that runs through the Mayan landscape on the limits of the maize fields of the farmers. This study explores its traditional use and management and traces how it has changed in the last 30 years in the study village in Yucat{\'a}n, Mexico. A major change is in its extent; little remains of the 10\–20\% of the area it occupied in the past. Two of the causes of this are identified as being a credit programme of the local bank and 1973 state legislation concerning cattle. The causes and consequences of this decline are discussed in relation with other farmer-perceived changes in overall landuse, including a fall in maize yields. The ecological roles of the T\&$\#$39;OLCHE\&$\#$39; are examined. It is argued that the T\&$\#$39;OLCHE\&$\#$39; plays an essential role in the regeneration of the fallow vegetation and in the maintenance of biological diversity. The case of the T\&$\#$39;OLCHE\&$\#$39; suggests the need for a diversified and politicized look on Common Property Resource Management.

}, keywords = {common property management, fallow regeneration, Maya, shelterbelts, shifting cultivation, traditional landuse}, doi = {10.1007/BF00115409}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00115409}, author = {G. G. A. Remmers and H. De Koeijer} } @inbook {929, title = {Traditional ecological knowledge in perspective}, year = {1992}, note = {Draft introductory chapter for volume based on Common Property Conference, Winnipeg, September 1992}, month = {September 1992}, abstract = {This document discusses different facets of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK): background, definitions, comparisons to "western science," and the practical significance of TEK. An overview of the book that this is an introduction to is also given.}, author = {Fikret Berkes} } @article {707, title = {Traditional environmental knowledge: A resource to manage and share}, journal = {Development (Journal of SID [Society for International Development])}, year = {1992}, note = {
  1. Development (SID Journal) not found online prior to 1999; Google Scholar version is a paper presented at the Conference on Development with Equity and Ecological Security: Strategies and Institutions for the 21st Century, 11-12 September 1992.
  2. Please see the record for the Google Scholar version that was presented at the conference.

}, pages = {24-30}, abstract = {

Gis{\`e}le Morin-Labatut and Shahid Akhtar examine the knowledge base acquired by indigenous and local peoples over the generations through direct contact with their environment. They argue that this knowledge, including an intimate and detailed understanding of plants, animals and natural phenomena, the development and use of appropriate technologies for hunting, fishing, agriculture and forestry, and a holistic knowledge, or \"world view,\" parallels the scientific disciplines of ecology and environmental studies. Their paper indicates how indigenous knowledge is embedded in a dynamic, multidimensional universe in which cultural, economic, environmental and political factors intersect and influence one another. (author)

Indigenous people have acquired traditional environmental or ecological knowledge (TEK) over generations as a survival strategy. Knowledge and application are intricately linked with cultural economic environmental and political factors. Recognition of indigenous peoples contributions to management of natural resources was given in the 1989 World Conservation Strategy and the 1987 Brundtland Commissions Our Common Future. The premise is that sustainable management of resources can be achieved only through scientific development which includes the priorities of local population. It is also achieved through technological development which uses both traditional and modern approaches to problem solving. Western scientists have not readily accepted TEK. THe current relationship between TEK and Western approaches is a power relationship where indigenous people lack political power and control over natural resources and Western development paradigms are imposed. Comparisons of TEK and Western knowledge systems are given in Annex 1. This paper addresses the issues of how traditional and Western environment knowledge are complementary and jointly contribute to sustainable development. Integration requires different forms of institutional and political organization and power. Respect for indigenous knowledge (IK) will occur during the process of documenting and disseminating IK. It also occurs when indigenous populations become involved in the research process itself and affect changes in the research design and implementation. What is needed is more indigenous people who can manage Western research methods and Western researchers who understand aboriginal approaches to understanding the environment. Western researchers also need holistic ways of defining the universe. UNCED documents (Agenda 21) recognize the importance of indigenous cultures knowledge about health culture and human settlements. Other documents which provide a framework for dealing with these issues are Principle 22 of the Rio Declaration and the Preamble of the Convention on Biodiversity. Examples of TEK cooperative programs are given for Canada (Man and the Biosphere the International Development Research Center and other initiatives). Other centers for knowledge about TEK are also noted. An international TEK Management System affiliated with the Canadians has been proposed.

}, keywords = {demographic factors, economic factors, environment, environmental protection, indigenous population, natural resources, population characteristics, sociocultural factors}, author = {Gis{\`e}le Morin-Labatut and Shahid Akhtar} } @conference {706, title = {Traditional environmental knowledge: A resource to manage and share}, booktitle = {Paper presented at Development with Equity and Ecological Security: Strategies and Institutions for the 21st Century}, year = {1992}, note = {

Google Scholar provides the paper presented to the Conference on Development with Equity and Ecological Security: Strategies and Institutions for the 21st Century, 11-12 September 1992.

Please see the journal Development\&$\#$39;s version record.

}, month = {Sept 11-12, 1992}, abstract = {

This document defines traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and gives examples of organizations that are working with TEK. Formation of a global network of these organizations is suggested.

Gis{\`e}le Morin-Labatut and Shahid Akhtar examine the knowledge base acquired by indigenous and local peoples over the generations through direct contact with their environment. They argue that this knowledge, including an intimate and detailed understanding of plants, animals and natural phenomena, the development and use of appropriate technologies for hunting, fishing, agriculture and forestry, and a holistic knowledge, or \"world view,\" parallels the scientific disciplines of ecology and environmental studies. Their paper indicates how indigenous knowledge is embedded in a dynamic, multidimensional universe in which cultural, economic, environmental and political factors intersect and influence one another. (author)

}, keywords = {demographic factors, economic factors, environment, environmental protection, indigenous population, natural resources, population characteristics, sociocultural factors}, url = {https://idl-bnc-idrc.dspacedirect.org/bitstream/handle/10625/11724/94940.pdf?sequence=1}, author = {Gis{\`e}le Morin-Labatut and Shahid Akhtar} } @book {392, title = {Taking care of Sib{\"o}{\textquoteright}s gifts: An environmental treatise from Costa Rica{\textquoteright}s K{\'e}k{\"o}Ldi Indigenous Reserve}, year = {1991}, note = {

Publisher noted in Ecology, ethnobotany, Rainforest, and Traditional Medicine original files: Editorama, S.A.

}, month = {1991}, publisher = {Asociaci{\'o}n de Desarrollo Integral de la Reserva Ind{\'\i}gena Cocles/K{\'e}k{\"o}Ldi}, organization = {Asociaci{\'o}n de Desarrollo Integral de la Reserva Ind{\'\i}gena Cocles/K{\'e}k{\"o}Ldi}, address = {San Jos{\'e}, Costa Rica}, abstract = {This document details an example of the relationship that indigenous societies have with their environment and how they specifically set out to conserve their natural surroundings. A definition of what indigenous people are is given. Issues and laws surrounding conservation of rainforest resources (botanical and zoological) in the K{\'e}k{\"o}ldi region on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica are explained.}, keywords = {Central America, ecology, ethnobotany, medicinal plants, natural conservation, rainforests}, isbn = {9977-88-006-9}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/24535846}, author = {Paula Palmer and Juanita S{\'a}nchez and Gloria Mayorga} } @article {702, title = {Traditional agroforestry practices in Zimbabwe}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {14}, year = {1991}, month = {May 1991}, pages = {99-111}, abstract = {Traditional agroforestry systems in the communal areas of Zimbabwe are described. There are systems centered on main fields, on home gardens, on homesites and on grazing areas. In the main fields, the major tree-related management practice is the conservation of preferred indigenous fruit trees. Fruit trees are also the focus of forestry activities around the gardens and the homesite; but here it is the planting of exotic species. In a localized area of Zimbabwe Acacia albida is important in fields. There is almost no use of tree fallows in Zimbabwe. Trees in grazing areas have numerous roles, but at present there is little knowledge about traditional management practices in these areas. In the development of agroforestry systems in Zimbabwe it is suggested that those systems designed to improve fodder production will make a significant contribution to farm productivity because of the importance of cattle in the farming system and the present fodder shortage. Interventions involving the planting of fruit trees are likely to be very successful, as there is much interest in such planting. Another area that needs to be developed is that of tree plantings to improve soil fertility.}, keywords = {agriculture, fodder trees, forestry, fruit trees, gardening, grazing lands, species composition, traditional agroforestry, Zimbabwe}, doi = {10.1007/BF00045726}, url = {http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00045726}, author = {B. M. Campbell and J. M. Clarke and D. J. Gumbo} } @article {709, title = {Traditional tree crop based agroforestry in coffee producing areas of Harerge, eastern Ethiopia}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {16}, year = {1991}, month = {December 1991}, pages = {257-267}, abstract = {A preliminary survey of seven coffee producing Awrajas (Provinces) in eastern Ethiopia revealed that there is a traditional tree crop based agroforestry system being practised by the farmers. Coffee (C. arabica) was found to grow under the shade of several trees, 16 species, usually intercropped by one or several, a total of 15, important grain, fruit, vegetable, stimulant, oil-seed and spice crops. The majority of the trees, 69\%, is leguminous and Ficus spp. The system is characterized by the integration of crops, livestock and sometimes apiculture. Recommendations are made for future studies.}, keywords = {cash crops, chat, coffee (C. arabica), Ethiopia, Harerge, shade trees}, doi = {10.1007/BF00119322}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00119322}, author = {D. Teketay and A. Tegineh} } @book {408, title = {Tree and land tenure in the eastern Nepal terai: A case study by rapid appraisal}, year = {1991}, note = {A research report prepared for the Forests, Trees, and People Programme funded by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA)}, month = {1991}, pages = {91}, publisher = {IOF (Institute of Forestry)/ YALE/IRG/USAID Institute of Forestry Project and FAO/SIDA Forests, Trees and People Programme}, organization = {IOF (Institute of Forestry)/ YALE/IRG/USAID Institute of Forestry Project and FAO/SIDA Forests, Trees and People Programme}, address = {Pokhara, Nepal [Kathmandu, Nepal]}, abstract = {This is a case study of tree and land tenure in the eastern Nepal terai. The work includes an explanation of local terms and spelling conventions as well as extensive tables and maps.}, keywords = {agroforestry, ethnobotany, forestry, medicinal plants, taxonomy}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28676224}, author = {Bhishma P. Subedi and Chintamani L. Das and Donald A. Messerschmidt and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and Sweden. Styrelsen f{\"o}r internationell utveckling} } @article {667, title = {Temple forests in India{\textquoteright}s forest development}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {11}, year = {1990}, note = {accepted 22 January 1990; published September 1990}, month = {9/1990}, pages = {199-211}, abstract = {

Historically the temple forests in India have served many spiritual and religious purposes. This paper stresses on the use of the underused repertoire of sacred acts to integrate the benefits of temple forests in rural development. The tree/plant species, planting design and the rituals related to their worship documented in the great epics, vedas and upanishads are of great value especially in the context of promoting forest development and the forest development led agricultural development. The Star, Planet and Zodiac forests contain a large number of native tree species ideally suited to tropical stress and drought.

The promotion of temple forests would help developing forests in the upstream areas which can help create climax forests and aid in soil and moisture conservation to help improve the productivity of downstream agriculture. As the chief utilitarian value of these temple trees and plants is in terms of the native (ayurvedic) medicine, their propagation would not only develop the downstream farming opportunities, but also promote the native medicine sector. (author)

}, keywords = {agriculture, forestry, institution, medicinal plants, planet, ritual, star, temple, traditional medicine, worship, zodiac}, doi = {10.1007/BF00045899}, url = {http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00045899}, author = {M. G. Chandrakanth and J. K. Gilless and V. Gowramma and M. G. Nagaraja} } @booklet {497, title = {Towards a sustainable development strategy for the Sierra de los Tuxtlas, Mexico}, year = {1990}, note = {CEA-Carleton research proposal to the International Development Research Centre Cooperation Program}, month = {March 1990}, publisher = {Centro de estudios Agrarios and Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Carleton University}, address = {Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico}, abstract = {Since the 1950s, the cattle industry in Mexico had quadrupled in size, claiming tropical rain forests and land dedicated to basic grain production at an alarming rate. The ecological costs of this form of development have been extraordinary high. Changes in land use and land tenure have resulted in the loss of valuable rainforest resources and extensive soil degredation. The expansion of cattle ranching has also pushed many peasants out of agriculture and into other poverty-stricken sectors of the rural and urban economy. As a result of these developments, Mexico has lost national food self-sufficiency and today imports mare than ten million tons of basic grains. mainly corn and beans. The appropriation and abuse of peasant land by cattle ranchers has also contributed to the development of inequalities in the distribution of economic and political power.}, keywords = {livestock}, author = {Luisa Par{\'e}} } @article {439, title = {Traditional agriculture and plant pathology (TAPP) database [ASCII format for the Macintosh]}, year = {1990}, month = {1990}, publisher = {Cornell University Department of Plant Pathology}, address = {Ithaca, NY}, abstract = {The authors{\textquoteright} goal in developing this resource was to bring together as many as possible of the published materials on practices used by traditional farmers to manage plant diseases. The database in its present form is far from an exhaustive collection, and is an attempt to bring together the collective knowledge of several heretofore diverse disciplines. The authors hope that in doing so they have laid the groundwork for further collaboration among plant pathologists, social scientists, and othes with an interest in enhancing the vitality and viability of traditional farmers around the world.}, keywords = {agroforestry, biological control, crop density, diversity, fallow, fire, flooding, habitat selection, heat, hilling, minimum tillage, mixed gardens, mulching, multiple cropping, multistorey cropping, organic matter, pesticides, planting date, pruning, resistance, roguing, rotations, sanitation, seed treatment, selection, shade, sowing depth, storage, terraces, tillage, weeds}, author = {H. David Thurston and Neil R. Miller} } @article {705, title = {Traditional crop sparks new interest as a multipurpose tree}, journal = {Agroforestry Today (Kenya)}, volume = {2}, year = {1990}, month = {April-June 1990}, pages = {4-7}, abstract = {

In tropical regions, fast growing short-lived woody species such as pigeon pea are attracting considerable interest for agroforestry systems. Pigeon pea provides food, fuelwood, forage, and shelter to subsistence farmers. Pigeon pea, although a perennial plant, is most often grown as an annual, because it is highly susceptible to Fusarium wilt and mosaic disease. Nowadays resistant perennial lines are available, which can be grown for 3-4 years. The many uses of pigeon pea are summarized. Annual wood production of long-duration pigeon pea ranged from 2.5 to 12.5 t/ha, and grain yield was between 0.8 to 1.8 t/ha. Spacing, fertilizer requirement, crop combinations and management, weed and pest control measures and harvesting methods are discussed. KEYWORDS:

[CIKARD COPY] If farmers in the semi-arid tropics are to adopt agroforestry on a wide scale, researchers must address two major problems. One is the possibility of competition between trees and field crops in environments where moisture and soil fertility are likely to be limited. The second problem is the often considerable delay before farmers can expect any economic return from trees. (author)

This document looks at two short-lived woody species \— pigeonpea and sesbania \— as an answer to these two problems. It looks at the products which can be derived from the two species, how the two help to improve soil quality, what kinds of yields they produce, spacing and fertilizer requirements, crop combinations and management, and weed and pest control.

}, keywords = {agroforestry, ICRISAT, IITA, India, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Nigeria, pigeonpea, sesbania, soils, trees}, author = {C. K. Ong and Joshus N. Daniel} } @article {710, title = {Traditional woodland management techniques of African pastoralists}, journal = {Unasylva}, volume = {160}, year = {1990}, month = {December 1990}, pages = {49-58}, abstract = {

Over thousands of years, pastoralists in arid and semi-arid Africa have developed a set of principles and strategies that have enabled them to meet their physical and social needs in a harsh and variable environment. Under conditions of relatively low population density \— pastoralist societies are generally characterized by very low fertility rates and high infant mortality \— these strategies also resulted in the sustained management of key natural resources, particularly range and woodlands. Recently, however, rapid population growth and an associated series of external pressures including crop expansion into rangelands, nationalization of land by governments, forced sedentarization, expanding urban and rural demand for fuelwood, and indiscriminate water development, have combined to upset the delicate balance between the herders and their fragile environment.

}, keywords = {agroforestry, fodder, grazing, pastoralism, seedlings, woodland management}, url = {http://www.fao.org/3/t7750e/t7750e08.htm$\#$traditional\%20woodland\%20management\%20techniques\%20of\%20african\%20pastoralists}, author = {Maryam Niamir} } @article {698, title = {The tragedy of the commons: Twenty-two years later}, journal = {Human Ecology}, volume = {18}, year = {1990}, month = {March 1990}, pages = {1-19}, abstract = {Hardin{\textquoteright}s Tragedy of the Commons model predicts the eventual overexploitation or degradation of all resources used in common. Given this unambiguous prediction, a surprising number of cases exist in which users have been able to restrict access to the resource and establish rules among themselves for its sustainable use. To assess the evidence, we first define common-property resources and present a taxonomy of property-rights regimes in which such resources may be held. Evidence accumulated over the last twenty-two years indicates that private, state, andcommunal property are all potentially viable resource management options. A more complete theory than Hardin{\textquoteright}s should incorporate institutional arrangements and cultural factors to provide for better analysis and prediction. (author)}, keywords = {co-management, common property, fisheries, forestry, grazing lands, sustainable development, water resources , wildlife }, doi = {10.1007/BF00889070}, url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00889070}, author = {David Feeny and Fikret Berkes and Bonnie J. McCay and James M. Acheson} } @article {711, title = {Tree crop based agroforestry in Nigeria: A checklist of crops intercropped with cocoa}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {11}, year = {1990}, month = {September 1990}, pages = {227-241}, abstract = {A survey of cocoa farmers in Bendel, Ogun, Ondo and Oyo States of Nigeria, carried out in 1985, showed that almost all the farmers intercropped other crops with cocoa. The intercrops included food crops such as plantain (92.3), cocoyam (85.7\%), cassava (51.3\%), yam (41.3\%), maize (38.9\%), melon (31.4\%), cowpea (28.6\%) and pineapple (26.0\%) and tree crops such as oil palm (71.5\%), kola (67.3\%), coffee (41.0\%), coconut (7.9\%) and citrus (7.2\%). Other crops are ewe-iran (Sarcophrynium brachystachys) and ewe-gbodogi (Megaphrynium macrostachyum) (45.2\%), african walnut (Tetracarpidium conophorum) (42.2\%), aligator pepper (Aframomum melegueta) (31.6\%), and iyere (Piper guinense) (20.2\%). Guava, mango, pawpaw and vegetables such as celosia, okra and solanum occur in cocoa plots at rather low frequencies. As many as six or more other crops can be intercropped with cocoa at the same time.}, keywords = {agroforestry, cocoa belt, crop combination, food crops, medicinal plants, tree crops}, doi = {10.1007/BF00045901}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00045901}, author = {M. A. O. Oladokun} } @book {402, title = {The tropical forestry action plan: What progress?}, year = {1990}, month = {1990}, pages = {89}, publisher = {World Rainforest Movement and the Ecologist}, organization = {World Rainforest Movement and the Ecologist}, address = {Penang, Malaysia}, abstract = {This book discusses the results of a review of the implementation and success of the Tropical Forestry action Plan since it was introduced in 1985 as the answer to the tropical deforestation problem. This review details nine of the currently used plans in terms of their goals and how well they have met these goals.}, keywords = {forest policy, rainforests}, isbn = {967-99987-2-X}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23738011}, author = {Marcus Colchester and Larry Lohmann} } @article {498, title = {To coexist: Diversity and development}, year = {1989}, month = {1989}, pages = {29 min}, publisher = {USAID}, type = {VHS}, address = {Washington, DC}, abstract = {This is a videotape of case studies of sustainable development in Rwanda (mountain gorilla tourism), Thailand, Peru, the Amazon, and the Maasai in Kenya in which the local people participated in an effort to retain biodiversity in their region while working with USAID development projects.}, keywords = {agroforestry, biodiversity, logging, pastoralism, water resources }, author = {Robert Pierce} } @book {406, title = {Traditional ecological knowledge: A collection of essays}, series = {IUCN conservation library}, year = {1989}, note = {November 1989 Includes bibliographical references (p. 71-77)}, month = {November 1989 }, pages = {77}, publisher = {IUCN}, organization = {IUCN}, address = {Gland [Switzerland]; Cambridge}, abstract = {

IUCN is pleased to publish this collection of articles which originate from the working group on Traditional Ecological Knowledge of our Commission on Ecology. This book does not presume to be an authoritative review of the state of knowledge in the field. It is, rather, a collection of free essays which offer fascinating glimpses of the deep understanding and practice of \"ecology\" displayed by traditional societies on different continents. (editor)

Contains the following essays:

}, keywords = {ecology, natural conservation}, isbn = {2-88032-998-1}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/729639587}, editor = {R. E. (Robert Earle) Johannes} } @article {666, title = {Technology transfer: Institutions, models, and impacts on agriculture and rural life in the developing world}, journal = {Agriculture and Human Values}, volume = {5}, year = {1988}, note = {This article from Agriculture and Human Values, 5 (1-2) listed independently.}, month = {December 1988}, pages = {16-23}, abstract = {Technology transfer is a multi-level process of communication involving a variety of senders and receivers of ideas and materials. As a response to market failure, or as an effort to accelerate market-driven social change, technology transfer may combine public and private aparatus or rely solely on public institutional mechanisms to identify, develop, and deliver innovations and information. Technology transfer institutions include universities, government ministries, research institutes, and what may be termed the {\textquoteright}project sector{\textquoteright}. Four farm- and village-level change models are considered: traditional community development, adoption-diffusion, training and Visit Extension, and Farming Systems Research. The challenges to technology transfer efforts center on developing indigenous capacity to generate and adapt agricultural technology to local conditions. This is the primary objective of technology transfer in agriculture and the basis for advancing rural development.}, keywords = {community development, farming systems, rural development, technology transfer, transfer effort}, doi = {10.1007/BF02217173}, url = {http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02217173}, author = {Joseph J. Molnar and Curtis M. Jolly} } @article {703, title = {Traditional agroforestry system in the Cordilleras (Ifugao)}, journal = {Likasyaman (Technology Series)}, year = {1988}, month = {April-June 1988}, abstract = {This short summary of a traditional agroforestry setup in Ifugao, Philippines, discusses qualitatively the advantages of using an indigenous shade tree with coffee for enhanced production. Coffee, introduced during Spanish occupation, is grown under raintree (Samanea caman) along with rattan vines (Calamus merrillii) which is in demand locally for the cottage industry. There is little to no exogenous technological influence in this system (except the introduction of coffee) because there is no pruning, fertilization or improved plant varieties of coffee. The author considers the system sustainable based on nutrient and water cycling advantages of raintree (a nitrogen fixer) particularly soil nutrient additions of litter fall. A brief ecological and socioeconomic descriptions of the region are included.}, keywords = {Acacia, coffee, traditional agroforestry}, author = {Guillermo Felipe} } @book {407, title = {Traditional knowledge and renewable resource management in northern regions}, series = {Occasional publication (Boreal Institute for Northern Studies); no. 23}, year = {1988}, note = {A joint publication of the IUCN Commission on Ecology and the Boreal Institute for Northern Studies}, month = {1988}, pages = {124}, publisher = {IUCN Commission on Ecology and the Canadian Circumpolar Institute, Boreal Institute for Northern Studies}, organization = {IUCN Commission on Ecology and the Canadian Circumpolar Institute, Boreal Institute for Northern Studies}, address = {Edmonton, AB, Canada}, abstract = {

Contains following papers:

}, keywords = {American Indians, Arctic regions, Eskimos, First Peoples, fisheries, Inuit, Native Americans, resource management}, isbn = {978-0-919058-68-2}, issn = {0068-0303}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/658935111}, editor = {Milton M. R. Freeman and Ludwig N. Carbyn} } @article {844, title = {Trees and pastoralists: The case of the Pokot and Turkana}, year = {1988}, note = {

This paper argued that the traditional values and practices of the semi-nomadic Pokot and Turkana peoples of Kenya provided an excellent basis for institutional efforts to sustain the pastoralists\&$\#$39; semi-arid environments. Both groups managed pasture lands adaptively and co-operatively, under the leadership of elders. Trees along water courses were under individual tenure, highly valued and rarely cut, though people did not plant trees and failed to see the connection between seedlings and productive mature trees. The author argued that the many inappropriate and damaging interventions in the area, for instance intensification of land use, could be usefully replaced by developments that start with what people know, build on indigenous strategies and strengthen local rights of tenure.

}, month = {May 1988}, institution = {Overseas Development Institute (ODI)}, address = {London}, abstract = {

Pastoral people in arid and semi-arid lands have, with time, developed rational sustainable land use systems based on the mobility of their livestock herds, and making optimal use of the land both geographically and ecologically. Historically such systems were self-regulating with periodic famines and disease outbreaks acting as controls. These self-regulating mechanisms are for various reasons, no longer allowed full play with resulting deterioration in land-use patterns, particularly in the settlement zones.

Few people perceive the use of their land-use strategies as a soil and water conservation benefit, yet in preserving their land and vegetation this is exactly what it is. Likewise planners in soil and water conservation, in many cases, do not see the value of such strategies, preferring the use of structures in curing the problem rather than preventing the disease.

This paper attempts, in some small way to highlight some of the traditional values that the Pokot and Turkana have which could be of intrinsic value to soil and water conservation, if used sensibly in the dry areas. It further attempts to identify methods of incorporating such traditional values into soil and water conservation practice for arid and semi-arid lands. (author)

}, keywords = {soil conservation}, url = {https://odi.org/en/publications/trees-and-pastoralists-the-case-of-the-pokot-and-turkana/}, author = {Edmund G. C. Barrow} } @proceedings {482, title = {Trees on small farms: Multipurpose tree species research for the arid and semi-arid tropics}, year = {1988}, month = {Nov 16-19, 1987}, publisher = {Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development}, address = {Arlington, VA}, abstract = {In recognition of the rapid depletion of tropical forest resources and the increased scarcity of fuelwood and other tree products, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) designed and funded the Forestry/Fuelwood Research and Development Project. F/FRED provides a network through which scientists exchange research plans, methods and results on the production and use of trees to meet the needs of small-scale farmers in Asia. These fast-growing, high-yielding trees are appropriately termed multipurpose tree species (MPTS). To date, network trials have been established on 16 sites in the humid and semi-humid tropics. Participants are 10 Asian scientists from Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand.}, keywords = {agroforestry, fuelwood}, editor = {David A. Taylor and Lee Medema} } @inbook {807, title = {Trees, people and the dry lands: The role of local knowledge}, booktitle = {Agroforestry development in Kenya: Proceedings of the Second Kenya National Seminar on Agroforestry}, year = {1988}, note = {Paper presented to Second Kenya National Seminar on Agroforestry}, month = {Nov. 7-16 1988}, publisher = {Institute of Forestry}, organization = {Institute of Forestry}, address = {Nairobi, Kenya}, abstract = {The importance of traditional knowledge as a tool in development is discussed in broad terms, its relevance to the change process and as to why it has not been fully utilized in the past. Pokot and Turkana transhumant silvo-pastoral systems are discussed in a broad land management perspective and then as they relate to individual tree species, their utilization and management. This is then briefly compared to the Sukuma (in Tanzania) agro-silvo-pastoral system. In all cases the people of the area display a rich and detailed local knowledge base as it relates to the environment and ecology. This comprises a detailed ethnobotanical knowledge as it relates to species utilization and their management, which is then related to broad land management systems which, especially in Pokot and Turkana are both environmentally sound, ecologically viable and culturally acceptable. Why then are such systems and knowledge bases not utilized? This is then related to traditional conservatism and constraints pertaining to such lands. In realizing that the traditional base is not perfect, ways are discussed as to how the people and the knowledge base can be brought into the focus of development and change, particularly in the silvo-pastoral context. This is based on a participatory sharing extension approach which identifies potential and constraints in the traditional base combined with problem identification and solution finding. The example of the Turkana Rural Development Programme{\textquoteright}s forestry sector is used to show how this can be achieved (or at least partly so) in a large district such as Turkana whose people are mobile and widely spaced. It is discussed in terms of extension approaches used, feedback from such work and the impact of the work to date. It is likewise shown that such work can fit into current day development thinking as a means of relating the local knowledge base to the present day. The conclusion challenges researchers and developers alike in terms of giving a real and meaningful emphasis to the traditional database, of relating their work to it and keeping the focus of such work on the people who live in such areas. Such pastoral people do not compartmentalize their lives into discrete boxes as Research and Development tends to do. This is not possible especially in the arid and semi-arid lands and especially as relates to silvo-pastoralism. The threads are too interlinked. The basis for change and improvement lies with making the people of the area the focus, making them responsible for their environment through the use of the traditional knowledge base as a foundation stone for sustainable real development, as if people matter. (author)}, keywords = {participatory research}, author = {Edmund G. C. Barrow} } @inbook {930, title = {Tropical dry forests: The most endangered major tropical ecosystem}, booktitle = {Biodiversity}, year = {1988}, note = {Chapter 14}, month = {1988}, pages = {130-137}, publisher = {National Academy Press}, organization = {National Academy Press}, address = {Washington, DC}, abstract = {The most threatened of major tropical forest types is the tropical dry forest. They are threatened for many different reasons. The expensive land that is generally used for agricultural production is clear cut. This does very serious damage to the anticipated restoration of the site by conservationists who are working to stop the sellers. These sellers have much influence in local politics and will hold these positions well into the future. Fortunately, much of this cleared land could be properly restored if the proper seed sources are present. Properly manipulated, domestic animals may be our best hope in combatting the ever present threat of fire. These animals help to disperse seeds into the pastures and graze off of the grasses that would provide the fuel for the next dry season{\textquoteright}s grass fires. Restoration ecology is working to preserve these forests and maintain their rich biodiversity. The real well-being will rest in the hands of the policy makers.}, keywords = {biodiversity, dry forests, tropical forests}, isbn = {0-309-03783-2; 978-0-309=03783-9}, url = {http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=989\&page=130}, author = {Daniel H. Janzen}, editor = {E. O. Wilson and Frances M. Peter} } @inbook {928, title = {Traditional agroforestry practices of native and Ribereno farmers in the lowland Peruvian Amazon}, booktitle = {Agroforestry: Realities, possibilities and potentials}, year = {1987}, month = {1987}, pages = {179-195}, publisher = {Martin Nijhoff Publishers in cooperation with ICRAF; distributors for the U.S. and Canada, Kluwer Academic Publishers}, organization = {Martin Nijhoff Publishers in cooperation with ICRAF; distributors for the U.S. and Canada, Kluwer Academic Publishers}, address = {Dordrecht, Netherlands}, abstract = {Recent research on traditional agriculture in the Peruvian Amazon indicates that agroforestry practices are widespread and extremely varied. This article describes five agroforestry systems found in the vicinity of Iquitos, Peru. Although all begin as shifting cultivation fields, they differ greatly in species composition and richness, in intensity and length of management, in economic orientation, and in adaptation to particular ecological conditions. Four of the five systems are found in mestizo communities of the region. The information presented shows that basic traditional swidden-fallow agroforestry practices are adaptable to varying environmental and economic situations (author).}, keywords = {barbasco, Bora Indians, caimito, cashews, charcoal , coca, corn, economics, fiber, mamey, manioc, medicine, palms, papayas, Peru, pichirina, pineapple, plantains, pomarosa, Riberenos, rifari, toronja, tropical cedar, umair, uvilla, zapote}, isbn = {90-247-3590-4}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/16352684}, author = {Christine Padoch and Wil de Jong}, editor = {Henry L. Gholz} } @article {714, title = {Tropical rain forest management: A status report}, journal = {Unasylva}, volume = {39}, year = {1987}, month = {February 1987}, pages = {2-17}, abstract = {The potential for sustained management of natural forests in the humid tropics continues to be a subject of concern and uncertainty among tropical foresters. In this article, adapted from a paper presented at the Unesco-IVIC International Workshop on Rain Forest Regeneration and Management, Guri, Venezuela, in November 1986, the author examines a series of recent FAO studies and projects reports that indicate that the productive management of many humid lowland forests is both technically feasible and economically viable.}, keywords = {rainforests, regeneration, sustainable management}, url = {http://www.fao.org/docrep/s2850e/s2850e02.htm$\#$tropical\%20rain\%20forest\%20management}, author = {R. Schmidt} } @inbook {927, title = {Traditional agroforestry in West Java: The pekarangan (homegarden) and kebun-talun (annual-perennial rotation) cropping systems}, booktitle = {Traditional agriculture in southeast Asia: A human ecology perspective}, year = {1986}, month = {1986}, pages = {132-157}, publisher = {Westview Press}, organization = {Westview Press}, address = {Boulder, CO}, abstract = {This chapter looks at the role of kebun-talun and pekarangan in the Javanese landscape. Kebun-talun (rotation system between mixed garden and tree plantation) is a traditional system that increases overall production and serves multiple functions by sequentially combining agricultural crops with tree crops. Pekarangan (homegarden intercropping system) is a traditional system located in the villages that provides both subsistence and commercial products and serves multiple functions by simultaneously combining agricultural crops with tree crops and animals.}, keywords = {agriculture, agroforestry, animals, crop rotation, ecology, farming, home gardens, Indonesia, intercropping, Java, Javanese, kebun-talun, pekarangan, rice, tree crops, trees, upland farming}, isbn = {0-8133-7026-4}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12975293}, author = {Linda Christanty and Oekan S. Abdoellah and Gerald G. Marten and Johan Iskandar}, editor = {Gerald G. Marten} } @article {699, title = {The tree that purifies water: Cultivating multipurpose Moringaceae in the Sudan}, journal = {Unasylva (FAO)}, volume = {38}, year = {1986}, month = {February 1986}, pages = {23-28}, abstract = {Suspensions of seed powder from trees and shrubs of the Moringaceae family can effectively be used to clarify water, even turbid water from the River Nile. But species from this family have a variety of other uses as well. Although they show considerable promise for multipurpose use in the tropical belt, little is known about how to cultivate the various species. This article examines different methods of cultivation appropriate to different species -- often with surprising results.}, keywords = {agroforestry, fodder, fuelwood, medicinal plants, oil, ornamental trees, spices}, url = {http://www.fao.org/docrep/r7750e/r7750e04.htm$\#$the\%20tree\%20that\%20purifies\%20water:\%20cultivating\%20multipurpose\%20moringaceae\%20in\%20the\%20sudan}, author = {Samia Al Azharia Jahn and Hassan A. Musnad and Heinz Burgstaller} } @article {704, title = {Traditional agroforestry, parcel management, and social forestry development in a pioneer agricultural community: The case of Jala-jala, Rizal, Philippines}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {3}, year = {1985}, month = {December 1985}, pages = {317-337}, abstract = {This paper overviews a variety of traditional agroforestry systems found in a small community of Filipino migrant farmers. Background information provides context, and then case studies of seven farmers are offered to illustrate the functions which their agroforestries fulfill in a situation of parcellization of farm-holdings into both level and sloping fields. The implications of the brief portraits presented for further research and development and for the acceptability of a social forestry program now going on in the community are suggested.}, keywords = {agroforestry, farm fragmentation, farm management, hillside agriculture, Philippines, rapid rural appraisal, social forestry}, doi = {10.1007/BF00055715}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00055715}, author = {Harold Olofson} } @article {697, title = {The Talun-Kebun system, a modified shifting cultivation, in West Java}, journal = {The Environmentalist}, volume = {4, Supplement 7}, year = {1984}, month = {1984}, pages = {96-98}, abstract = {

The talun is a man-made forest consisting of a mixture of economic tree species, usually with an undergrowth of a mixture of annual plants. It has a multistorey structure and gives good protection to the soil against the erosive forces of rain, as well as being a genetic resource. The talun is privately owned and on the average a family has 1 to 2 hectares.

In the talun a shifting cultivation is practised by rotating a garden, called the kebun, which is planted with a mixture of cash crops. The cycle of the rotation is about 8 years. The opening for the kebun is created by harvesting the trees and bamboo by clear or selective cutting and heavy pruning. Hence, the talun-kebun system is essentially shifting cultivation in a man-made forest. Because of the high economic returns, it is capable of carrying a high population density on a sustainable basis.

}, keywords = {Java, shifting cultivation}, doi = {10.1016/S0251-1088(84)90466-2}, url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0251108884904662}, author = {Otto Soemarwoto} } @article {713, title = {Tropical forest architectural analysis as applied to agroforests in the humid tropics: The example of traditional village-agroforests in West Java}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {1}, year = {1983}, note = {Online version is a shortened and revised version of Bompard J, Ducatillion C, Hecketsweiler P Michon G, (1980) A traditional agricultural system: Village-forest-gardens in West Java. University Sc. Montpellier, France. Rapp. DEA. 101 p. + annex.}, month = {June 1983}, pages = {117-129}, abstract = {

The features of the tropical forest are found in Sundanese village-gardens. They are rich in plant species, a layered structure of the vegetation, existing patchwork and succession of sylvigenetic phases (from pioneer to homeostatic phase). These traditional agroforests reflect the surrounding forest ecosystem, simplifying the features.

The architectural method of tropical forest analysis is applied to Sundanese agroforests, but here each plant is both a structural element of the ecosystem and a producing element of the agricultural landscape. Such structural analysis could represent one aspect of an integral analysis of complex agroforestry systems.

}, keywords = {architectural analysis, Java, traditional agroforestry, tropical forests}, doi = {10.1007/BF00596353}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00596353}, author = {G. Michon and J. Bompard and P. Hecketsweiler and C. Ducatillion} } @article {712, title = {Tree gardening and taungya on Java: Examples of agroforestry techniques in the humid tropics}, journal = {Agroforestry Systems}, volume = {1}, year = {1982}, month = {March 1982}, pages = {53-70}, abstract = {Agroforestry is a general concept for a land management system combining trees and agricultural crops. For application, various specific techniques can be chosen. Each of these techniques is adjusted to a specific set of environmental as well as socio-economic factors. Agroforestry cultivators or managers belonging to varying social strata and institutional groupings may practice different forms of agroforestry, even within the same general region. This is demonstrated on the basis of two contrasting types of agroforestry which are found on the Indonesian island of Java. Tree gardening or the cultivation of a wide variety of crops in a multiple-storeyed agroforestry system is an indegenous practice on private lands, while taungya or the intercropping of young tree plantations with staple crops is practiced on state forest lands. Both systems are described as to their management characteristics, past development as well as possibilities and constraints for further development. These two practices are then compared as to various attributes, like producer group, production purpose, area of cultivation, land ownership situation, structural organization of crop combinations, possibilities for improved cultivation techniques, and suitability for application in rural development for specific target groups.}, keywords = {agroforestry systems, gardening, Indonesia, Java, land ownership, private land, state forest, young tree}, doi = {10.1007/BF00044329}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00044329}, author = {K. F. Wiersum} } @conference {804, title = {Traditional agro-forestry practices in arid zone of Rajasthan}, booktitle = {Paper presented at the Summer Institute on Agro-Forestry in Arid and Semi-Arid Zones, 15th June to 14th July, 1981}, year = {1981}, month = {June-July 1981}, publisher = {Central Arid Zone Research Institute}, organization = {Central Arid Zone Research Institute}, address = {Jodhpur, India}, abstract = {

In this paper the author discusses the agroforestry practices in different agro-climatic zones in Rajashthan. Six benefits were listed for the reason agroforestry techniques were needed:

  1. meeting fuel requirements,
  2. fencing materials,
  3. construction of lodging,
  4. fodder,
  5. food for human consumption, and
  6. protection against soil erosion and green manure.

The author then discusses in detail the types of trees used to meet the communities specific needs, in particular the Bordi and Khehri species.

}, keywords = {Bordi, community forestry, fuelwood, Khejri}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10369344}, author = {S. P. Malhotra} } @conference {806, title = {Tree and shrub species for agroforestry systems in arid and semi arid regions}, booktitle = {Summer Institute on Agro-forestry in Arid and Semi-arid Zones}, volume = {1}, year = {1981}, note = {Lecture delivered at Agroforestry in Arid and Semi-arid Zones June 15{\textendash}July 14, 1981}, month = {06/15-07/14/1981}, publisher = {Central Arid Zone Research Institute}, organization = {Central Arid Zone Research Institute}, address = {Jodhpur, India}, abstract = {

Lists of trees, where they grow and what they are used for.

In the tropics, uncertain supplies and increasing costs of feed, fertilizer and food coupled with projected population increases are giving the leguminous trees, whose foliage is browsed by animals, a status they have never enjoyed previously.

Trees and shrubs play a dual role in the forage supply, serving both as shade for grass and as forage themselves. In dry tropics, in particular, shrubs and trees are precious for without them stock raising would probably be impossible as pasture grasses die when upper soil layers lose their moisture, but tree roots exploit deep underground moisture and they continue to flourish. (author)

}, keywords = {agroforestry, fuelwood}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10369344}, author = {H. S. Mann} } @conference {746, title = {A traditional agro-system in the Amazon region of Colombia}, booktitle = {Tropical Ecology and Development: Proceedings of the Vth International Symposium of Tropical Ecology}, year = {1980}, month = {April 1979}, pages = {509-514}, publisher = {International Society of Tropical Ecology}, organization = {International Society of Tropical Ecology}, address = {Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia}, abstract = {A study has been made in Rain forest shifting cultivation, as practiced by Andoke and Witoto Indians in the Caqueta basin of the Colombian Amazonia. Ecological aspects of cultivation have been investigated at both the individual field level and in terms of field/forest relationships. In general, the indigenous cultivation system functions in a stable manner. At the individual field level, this is achieved through a relatively specialized response to adverse environmental conditions. A particular feature of the system is its agri-silvicultural status. Field/forest relationships are equally critical to the stability of the system. Lengthy forest fallowing is practiced between cultivations, reflecting the dispersed nature of indigenous settlements. This contrasts with the more damaging impact of equally small-scale, but more concentrated, colonist agriculture in adjacent areas. The development implications of indigenous farming methods are considered.}, keywords = {Columbia, rainforests}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7942294}, author = {Michael J. Eden} } @article {708, title = {Traditional marine conservation methods in Oceania and their demise}, journal = {Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics}, volume = {9}, year = {1978}, month = {January 1978}, pages = {349-364}, abstract = {This paper is an account of the rise and decline of a millenia-old system of controlled exploitation of marine resources that incorporates a wisdom Westerners are only now beginning to appreciate after having brought about its widespread decay. (author)}, keywords = {aquaculture, aquatic resources, fish, Melanesia}, url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/2096753}, author = {R. E. Johannes} } @book {409, title = {Tree crops: A permanent agriculture}, series = {Harper Colophon books; CN 610}, year = {1978}, month = {1978}, pages = {408}, publisher = {Island Press; Harper \& Row}, organization = {Island Press; Harper \& Row}, address = {Wasington, DC; New York}, abstract = {Introduction only: "A Practical Visionary". This is an introduction to J. Russell Smith{\textquoteright}s "Tree Crops." In it Wendell Berry describes his love of Smith{\textquoteright}s vision. The idea of perennial vs. annual crops and two-story agriculture are included in the plan. Berry sees Smith{\textquoteright}s plan as a way to reduce erosion and increase productivity while maintaining small-scale farming.}, keywords = {agroforestry, nuts, tree crops}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/300615}, author = {J. Russell Smith} } @inbook {925, title = {The types of utilization}, booktitle = {Tropical forest ecosystems: A state-of-knowledge report prepared by UNESCO/UNEP/FAO}, series = {Natural Resources Research no. 14}, year = {1978}, month = {1978}, pages = {453-487}, publisher = {UNESCO}, organization = {UNESCO}, address = {Paris}, abstract = {The purpose of this chapter is to examine different types of utilization of the forest ecosystems of the humid tropics, but excluding complete transformation to agro-ecosystems. Improved grassland will be discussed chiefly to demonstrate that it is possible to simplify the forest ecosystem to a certain degree, frequently in connection with tree crops, but without the intention of suggesting a research program. The farming or cropping of large wild mammals will not be discussed but will be mentioned in connection with wildlife management. Harvesting and product transport and the socio-economic aspects of development schemes (though their direct or indirect influence on utilization is considerable) will not be considered except for the necessity of research.}, keywords = {agroforestry, logging, shifting cultivation}, isbn = {92-3-101507-9}, url = {http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4745455}, author = {UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) and UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)} } @article {700, title = {The tropical rain forest}, journal = {Scientific American}, volume = {229}, year = {1973}, month = {December 1973}, pages = {58-67}, abstract = {

This paper addresses the scarcity of nutrients. This effects the food crops, rainforest, and the rest if the ecosystem. The recycling of the minerals is very rapid. Fungi and the decomposition of rocks help in adding nutrients to the ground. The primary rainforest is surviving, but barely.

The idea of a substitute or secondary forest is what is to replace the primary forest. These are phases to the growth of the secondary forest. These are grasses, including herbaceous dicotyledons, vines, shrubs, etc. Next is trees, soft-wooded, fast-growing, and short lived. After that is a cycle, the primary forest begins to form. In order for the primary forest to take shape, the secondary forest must be undistributed.

}, keywords = {Amazon, Borneo, homeostatic mechanisms, mineral-transport system, rainforests, swiddens, tropical forests}, doi = {10.1038/scientificamerican1273-58}, url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1273-58}, author = {Paul W. Richards} } @book {403, title = {The Turkuna [sic Tukuna]}, series = {University of California publications; American archaeology and ethnology 45}, year = {1952}, note = {This record is for pages 21-24 "Subsistence" which discusses agriculture and fishing}, month = {1952}, pages = {21-24; 209 pp.}, publisher = {University of California Press}, organization = {University of California Press}, address = {Berkeley, CA}, abstract = {Agriculture and fishing are the principle sources of Turkuna economy. The slash and burn faming is usually done by a communal work party of men. The four crops of major importance are bitter manioc, sweet manioc, maize, and yam. Fishing is the principal occupation of the men, who are taught to fish at an early age. Most boys can provide the household with the fish required at age 9 or 10.}, keywords = {aquatic resources, subsistence agriculture, Ticuna, Tucuna Indians, Tuk{\'u}na, Turkana}, author = {Curt Nimuendaj{\'u}} }