TY - BOOK T1 - Tropical forest conservation and development: A bibliography Y1 - 1994 A1 - Jean Albrecht KW - agroforestry KW - fuelwood KW - trees AB - This book is a bibliography containing citations on forest resources, deforestation, conservation and sustainable development, indigenous peoples, management, policy, and planning, trade and industrial development, nontimber forest products, research, education, training, and history. PB - Forestry Library, University of Minnesota CY - St Paul, MN JO - Tropical forest conservation and development ER - TY - RPRT T1 - Traditional ecological knowledge, biodiversity, resilience and sustainability Y1 - 1993 A1 - Fikret Berkes A1 - Carl Folke A1 - Madhav Gadgil AB - Traditional peoples who depended on their local ecosystems for their essential needs, have accumulated by trial-and-error a rich body of local environmental knowledge, and in several cases elaborated resource management systems, and developed institutions appropriate for implementing these systems. Biodiversity conservation appears to be integral to many traditional management systems from tropical forests to coastal fisheries. For example, some groups manipulate the local landscape to augment its heterogeneity, use conservation "rules of thumb" to help use species-rich communities sustainable, and intergrate the production of several multispecies systems. Thus, self-interest of traditional peoples has been key to biodiversity maintenance. As traditional peoples are integrated into the global economy and come under various pressures, they often lose their resource base, and in the long run, their knowledge systems, social institutions, and their world view which shapes their relations with the environment. The process of decoupling of traditional peoples from their resource base is likely to reduce the resilience of their social systems, as well as their local ecosystems through biodiversity loss. We make the argument in this chapter that the two are related, and the reduction of resilience will make both social and ecological systems more fragile. One challenge for biodiversity conservation is to learn from the knowledge-practice-belief complex of traditional peoples. But a perhaps more important challenge is to implement elements of it in "new TEK" systems which allow feedbacks from the environment, and respond to them in a more resilient way than do current day management practices. (author) JF - Beijer Discussion Paper Series No. 31 PB - Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics CY - Stockholm, Sweden N1 -

Later published as:

Berkes F., Folke C., Gadgil M. (1994) Traditional Ecological Knowledge, Biodiversity, Resilience and Sustainability. In: Perrings C.A., Mäler KG., Folke C., Holling C.S., Jansson BO. (eds) Biodiversity Conservation. Ecology, Economy & Environment, vol 4. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1006-8_15

U5 - 34 pp. ER - TY - CONF T1 - Traditional ecological knowledge in perspective T2 - Traditional ecological knowledge: Concepts and cases Y1 - 1993 A1 - Fikret Berkes ED - Julian T. Inglis KW - ecology KW - indigenous knowledge AB - This paper deals with the concept of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). It outlines a definition of TEK and the spread of the idea. Included is a section on the similarities and differences between indigenous science and Western Science. Also included is a section on the practical applications/importance of TEK. JF - Traditional ecological knowledge: Concepts and cases PB - Winnepeg, Manitoba, Canada CY - International Program on Traditional Ecological Knowledge/IDRC UR - https://library.umac.mo/ebooks/b10756577a.pdf ER - TY - BOOK T1 - Tropical forest conservation and development: A bibliography T2 - Manual (Environmental and Natural Resources Policy and Training Project) no. 1 Y1 - 1993 A1 - Jean Albrecht KW - agroforestry KW - fuelwood KW - trees AB - This book is a bibliography containing citations on forest resources, deforestation, conservation and sustainable development, indigenous peoples, management, policy, and planning, trade and industrial development, nontimber forest products, research, education, training, and history. JF - Manual (Environmental and Natural Resources Policy and Training Project) no. 1 PB - EPAT/MUCIA-Research & Training, University of Wisconsin—Madison CY - Madison, WI UR - http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28478635 JO - Tropical forest conservation and development ER - TY - JOUR T1 - The T'OLCHE', a Maya system of communally managed forest belts: The causes and consequences of its disappearance JF - Agroforestry Systems Y1 - 1992 A1 - G. G. A. Remmers A1 - H. De Koeijer KW - common property management KW - fallow regeneration KW - Maya KW - shelterbelts KW - shifting cultivation KW - traditional landuse AB -

The T'OLCHE' is a protected forest belt about 10–20 m wide that runs through the Mayan landscape on the limits of the maize fields of the farmers. This study explores its traditional use and management and traces how it has changed in the last 30 years in the study village in Yucatán, Mexico. A major change is in its extent; little remains of the 10–20% of the area it occupied in the past. Two of the causes of this are identified as being a credit programme of the local bank and 1973 state legislation concerning cattle. The causes and consequences of this decline are discussed in relation with other farmer-perceived changes in overall landuse, including a fall in maize yields. The ecological roles of the T'OLCHE' are examined. It is argued that the T'OLCHE' plays an essential role in the regeneration of the fallow vegetation and in the maintenance of biological diversity. The case of the T'OLCHE' suggests the need for a diversified and politicized look on Common Property Resource Management.

VL - 18 UR - https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00115409 IS - 2 U1 - Agroforest Syst JO - The T'OLCHE', a Maya system of communally managed forest belts ER - TY - CHAP T1 - Traditional ecological knowledge in perspective Y1 - 1992 A1 - Fikret Berkes AB - This document discusses different facets of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK): background, definitions, comparisons to "western science," and the practical significance of TEK. An overview of the book that this is an introduction to is also given. N1 - Draft introductory chapter for volume based on Common Property Conference, Winnipeg, September 1992 U5 - 13 pp. ER - TY - JOUR T1 - Traditional environmental knowledge: A resource to manage and share JF - Development (Journal of SID [Society for International Development]) Y1 - 1992 A1 - Gisèle Morin-Labatut A1 - Shahid Akhtar KW - demographic factors KW - economic factors KW - environment KW - environmental protection KW - indigenous population KW - natural resources KW - population characteristics KW - sociocultural factors AB -

Gisèle Morin-Labatut and Shahid Akhtar examine the knowledge base acquired by indigenous and local peoples over the generations through direct contact with their environment. They argue that this knowledge, including an intimate and detailed understanding of plants, animals and natural phenomena, the development and use of appropriate technologies for hunting, fishing, agriculture and forestry, and a holistic knowledge, or "world view," parallels the scientific disciplines of ecology and environmental studies. Their paper indicates how indigenous knowledge is embedded in a dynamic, multidimensional universe in which cultural, economic, environmental and political factors intersect and influence one another. (author)

Indigenous people have acquired traditional environmental or ecological knowledge (TEK) over generations as a survival strategy. Knowledge and application are intricately linked with cultural economic environmental and political factors. Recognition of indigenous peoples contributions to management of natural resources was given in the 1989 World Conservation Strategy and the 1987 Brundtland Commissions Our Common Future. The premise is that sustainable management of resources can be achieved only through scientific development which includes the priorities of local population. It is also achieved through technological development which uses both traditional and modern approaches to problem solving. Western scientists have not readily accepted TEK. THe current relationship between TEK and Western approaches is a power relationship where indigenous people lack political power and control over natural resources and Western development paradigms are imposed. Comparisons of TEK and Western knowledge systems are given in Annex 1. This paper addresses the issues of how traditional and Western environment knowledge are complementary and jointly contribute to sustainable development. Integration requires different forms of institutional and political organization and power. Respect for indigenous knowledge (IK) will occur during the process of documenting and disseminating IK. It also occurs when indigenous populations become involved in the research process itself and affect changes in the research design and implementation. What is needed is more indigenous people who can manage Western research methods and Western researchers who understand aboriginal approaches to understanding the environment. Western researchers also need holistic ways of defining the universe. UNCED documents (Agenda 21) recognize the importance of indigenous cultures knowledge about health culture and human settlements. Other documents which provide a framework for dealing with these issues are Principle 22 of the Rio Declaration and the Preamble of the Convention on Biodiversity. Examples of TEK cooperative programs are given for Canada (Man and the Biosphere the International Development Research Center and other initiatives). Other centers for knowledge about TEK are also noted. An international TEK Management System affiliated with the Canadians has been proposed.

IS - 4 N1 -
  1. Development (SID Journal) not found online prior to 1999; Google Scholar version is a paper presented at the Conference on Development with Equity and Ecological Security: Strategies and Institutions for the 21st Century, 11-12 September 1992.
  2. Please see the record for the Google Scholar version that was presented at the conference.

JO - Traditional environmental knowledge ER - TY - CONF T1 - Traditional environmental knowledge: A resource to manage and share T2 - Paper presented at Development with Equity and Ecological Security: Strategies and Institutions for the 21st Century Y1 - 1992 A1 - Gisèle Morin-Labatut A1 - Shahid Akhtar KW - demographic factors KW - economic factors KW - environment KW - environmental protection KW - indigenous population KW - natural resources KW - population characteristics KW - sociocultural factors AB -

This document defines traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and gives examples of organizations that are working with TEK. Formation of a global network of these organizations is suggested.

Gisèle Morin-Labatut and Shahid Akhtar examine the knowledge base acquired by indigenous and local peoples over the generations through direct contact with their environment. They argue that this knowledge, including an intimate and detailed understanding of plants, animals and natural phenomena, the development and use of appropriate technologies for hunting, fishing, agriculture and forestry, and a holistic knowledge, or "world view," parallels the scientific disciplines of ecology and environmental studies. Their paper indicates how indigenous knowledge is embedded in a dynamic, multidimensional universe in which cultural, economic, environmental and political factors intersect and influence one another. (author)

JF - Paper presented at Development with Equity and Ecological Security: Strategies and Institutions for the 21st Century UR - https://idl-bnc-idrc.dspacedirect.org/bitstream/handle/10625/11724/94940.pdf?sequence=1 N1 -

Google Scholar provides the paper presented to the Conference on Development with Equity and Ecological Security: Strategies and Institutions for the 21st Century, 11-12 September 1992.

Please see the journal Development's version record.

JO - Traditional environmental knowledge ER - TY - BOOK T1 - Taking care of Sibö's gifts: An environmental treatise from Costa Rica's KéköLdi Indigenous Reserve Y1 - 1991 A1 - Paula Palmer A1 - Juanita Sánchez A1 - Gloria Mayorga KW - Central America KW - ecology KW - ethnobotany KW - medicinal plants KW - natural conservation KW - rainforests AB - This document details an example of the relationship that indigenous societies have with their environment and how they specifically set out to conserve their natural surroundings. A definition of what indigenous people are is given. Issues and laws surrounding conservation of rainforest resources (botanical and zoological) in the Kéköldi region on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica are explained. PB - Asociación de Desarrollo Integral de la Reserva Indígena Cocles/KéköLdi CY - San José, Costa Rica SN - 9977-88-006-9 UR - http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/24535846 N1 -

Publisher noted in Ecology, ethnobotany, Rainforest, and Traditional Medicine original files: Editorama, S.A.

ER - TY - JOUR T1 - Traditional agroforestry practices in Zimbabwe JF - Agroforestry Systems Y1 - 1991 A1 - B. M. Campbell A1 - J. M. Clarke A1 - D. J. Gumbo KW - agriculture KW - fodder trees KW - forestry KW - fruit trees KW - gardening KW - grazing lands KW - species composition KW - traditional agroforestry KW - Zimbabwe AB - Traditional agroforestry systems in the communal areas of Zimbabwe are described. There are systems centered on main fields, on home gardens, on homesites and on grazing areas. In the main fields, the major tree-related management practice is the conservation of preferred indigenous fruit trees. Fruit trees are also the focus of forestry activities around the gardens and the homesite; but here it is the planting of exotic species. In a localized area of Zimbabwe Acacia albida is important in fields. There is almost no use of tree fallows in Zimbabwe. Trees in grazing areas have numerous roles, but at present there is little knowledge about traditional management practices in these areas. In the development of agroforestry systems in Zimbabwe it is suggested that those systems designed to improve fodder production will make a significant contribution to farm productivity because of the importance of cattle in the farming system and the present fodder shortage. Interventions involving the planting of fruit trees are likely to be very successful, as there is much interest in such planting. Another area that needs to be developed is that of tree plantings to improve soil fertility. VL - 14 UR - http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00045726 IS - 2 U1 - Agroforest Syst ER - TY - JOUR T1 - Traditional tree crop based agroforestry in coffee producing areas of Harerge, eastern Ethiopia JF - Agroforestry Systems Y1 - 1991 A1 - D. Teketay A1 - A. Tegineh KW - cash crops KW - chat KW - coffee (C. arabica) KW - Ethiopia KW - Harerge KW - shade trees AB - A preliminary survey of seven coffee producing Awrajas (Provinces) in eastern Ethiopia revealed that there is a traditional tree crop based agroforestry system being practised by the farmers. Coffee (C. arabica) was found to grow under the shade of several trees, 16 species, usually intercropped by one or several, a total of 15, important grain, fruit, vegetable, stimulant, oil-seed and spice crops. The majority of the trees, 69%, is leguminous and Ficus spp. The system is characterized by the integration of crops, livestock and sometimes apiculture. Recommendations are made for future studies. VL - 16 UR - https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00119322 IS - 3 U1 - Agroforest Syst ER - TY - BOOK T1 - Tree and land tenure in the eastern Nepal terai: A case study by rapid appraisal Y1 - 1991 A1 - Bhishma P. Subedi A1 - Chintamani L. Das A1 - Donald A. Messerschmidt A1 - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) A1 - Sweden. Styrelsen för internationell utveckling KW - agroforestry KW - ethnobotany KW - forestry KW - medicinal plants KW - taxonomy AB - This is a case study of tree and land tenure in the eastern Nepal terai. The work includes an explanation of local terms and spelling conventions as well as extensive tables and maps. PB - IOF (Institute of Forestry)/ YALE/IRG/USAID Institute of Forestry Project and FAO/SIDA Forests, Trees and People Programme CY - Pokhara, Nepal [Kathmandu, Nepal] UR - http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28676224 N1 - A research report prepared for the Forests, Trees, and People Programme funded by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) JO - Tree and land tenure in the eastern Nepal terai ER - TY - JOUR T1 - Temple forests in India's forest development JF - Agroforestry Systems Y1 - 1990 A1 - M. G. Chandrakanth A1 - J. K. Gilless A1 - V. Gowramma A1 - M. G. Nagaraja KW - agriculture KW - forestry KW - institution KW - medicinal plants KW - planet KW - ritual KW - star KW - temple KW - traditional medicine KW - worship KW - zodiac AB -

Historically the temple forests in India have served many spiritual and religious purposes. This paper stresses on the use of the underused repertoire of sacred acts to integrate the benefits of temple forests in rural development. The tree/plant species, planting design and the rituals related to their worship documented in the great epics, vedas and upanishads are of great value especially in the context of promoting forest development and the forest development led agricultural development. The Star, Planet and Zodiac forests contain a large number of native tree species ideally suited to tropical stress and drought.

The promotion of temple forests would help developing forests in the upstream areas which can help create climax forests and aid in soil and moisture conservation to help improve the productivity of downstream agriculture. As the chief utilitarian value of these temple trees and plants is in terms of the native (ayurvedic) medicine, their propagation would not only develop the downstream farming opportunities, but also promote the native medicine sector. (author)

VL - 11 UR - http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00045899 IS - 3 N1 - accepted 22 January 1990; published September 1990 U1 - Agroforest Syst ER - TY - ABST T1 - Towards a sustainable development strategy for the Sierra de los Tuxtlas, Mexico Y1 - 1990 A1 - Luisa Paré KW - livestock AB - Since the 1950s, the cattle industry in Mexico had quadrupled in size, claiming tropical rain forests and land dedicated to basic grain production at an alarming rate. The ecological costs of this form of development have been extraordinary high. Changes in land use and land tenure have resulted in the loss of valuable rainforest resources and extensive soil degredation. The expansion of cattle ranching has also pushed many peasants out of agriculture and into other poverty-stricken sectors of the rural and urban economy. As a result of these developments, Mexico has lost national food self-sufficiency and today imports mare than ten million tons of basic grains. mainly corn and beans. The appropriation and abuse of peasant land by cattle ranchers has also contributed to the development of inequalities in the distribution of economic and political power. PB - Centro de estudios Agrarios and Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Carleton University CY - Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico N1 - CEA-Carleton research proposal to the International Development Research Centre Cooperation Program U5 - 19 pp. ER - TY - COMP T1 - Traditional agriculture and plant pathology (TAPP) database [ASCII format for the Macintosh] Y1 - 1990 A1 - H. David Thurston A1 - Neil R. Miller KW - agroforestry KW - biological control KW - crop density KW - diversity KW - fallow KW - fire KW - flooding KW - habitat selection KW - heat KW - hilling KW - minimum tillage KW - mixed gardens KW - mulching KW - multiple cropping KW - multistorey cropping KW - organic matter KW - pesticides KW - planting date KW - pruning KW - resistance KW - roguing KW - rotations KW - sanitation KW - seed treatment KW - selection KW - shade KW - sowing depth KW - storage KW - terraces KW - tillage KW - weeds AB - The authors' goal in developing this resource was to bring together as many as possible of the published materials on practices used by traditional farmers to manage plant diseases. The database in its present form is far from an exhaustive collection, and is an attempt to bring together the collective knowledge of several heretofore diverse disciplines. The authors hope that in doing so they have laid the groundwork for further collaboration among plant pathologists, social scientists, and othes with an interest in enhancing the vitality and viability of traditional farmers around the world. PB - Cornell University Department of Plant Pathology CY - Ithaca, NY ER - TY - JOUR T1 - Traditional crop sparks new interest as a multipurpose tree JF - Agroforestry Today (Kenya) Y1 - 1990 A1 - C. K. Ong A1 - Joshus N. Daniel KW - agroforestry KW - ICRISAT KW - IITA KW - India KW - International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics KW - International Institute of Tropical Agriculture KW - Nigeria KW - pigeonpea KW - sesbania KW - soils KW - trees AB -

In tropical regions, fast growing short-lived woody species such as pigeon pea are attracting considerable interest for agroforestry systems. Pigeon pea provides food, fuelwood, forage, and shelter to subsistence farmers. Pigeon pea, although a perennial plant, is most often grown as an annual, because it is highly susceptible to Fusarium wilt and mosaic disease. Nowadays resistant perennial lines are available, which can be grown for 3-4 years. The many uses of pigeon pea are summarized. Annual wood production of long-duration pigeon pea ranged from 2.5 to 12.5 t/ha, and grain yield was between 0.8 to 1.8 t/ha. Spacing, fertilizer requirement, crop combinations and management, weed and pest control measures and harvesting methods are discussed. KEYWORDS:

[CIKARD COPY] If farmers in the semi-arid tropics are to adopt agroforestry on a wide scale, researchers must address two major problems. One is the possibility of competition between trees and field crops in environments where moisture and soil fertility are likely to be limited. The second problem is the often considerable delay before farmers can expect any economic return from trees. (author)

This document looks at two short-lived woody species — pigeonpea and sesbania — as an answer to these two problems. It looks at the products which can be derived from the two species, how the two help to improve soil quality, what kinds of yields they produce, spacing and fertilizer requirements, crop combinations and management, and weed and pest control.

VL - 2 IS - 2 U1 - Agroforestry Today (Kenya) ER - TY - JOUR T1 - Traditional woodland management techniques of African pastoralists JF - Unasylva Y1 - 1990 A1 - Maryam Niamir KW - agroforestry KW - fodder KW - grazing KW - pastoralism KW - seedlings KW - woodland management AB -

Over thousands of years, pastoralists in arid and semi-arid Africa have developed a set of principles and strategies that have enabled them to meet their physical and social needs in a harsh and variable environment. Under conditions of relatively low population density — pastoralist societies are generally characterized by very low fertility rates and high infant mortality — these strategies also resulted in the sustained management of key natural resources, particularly range and woodlands. Recently, however, rapid population growth and an associated series of external pressures including crop expansion into rangelands, nationalization of land by governments, forced sedentarization, expanding urban and rural demand for fuelwood, and indiscriminate water development, have combined to upset the delicate balance between the herders and their fragile environment.

VL - 160 UR - http://www.fao.org/3/t7750e/t7750e08.htm#traditional%20woodland%20management%20techniques%20of%20african%20pastoralists IS - 41 ER - TY - JOUR T1 - The tragedy of the commons: Twenty-two years later JF - Human Ecology Y1 - 1990 A1 - David Feeny A1 - Fikret Berkes A1 - Bonnie J. McCay A1 - James M. Acheson KW - co-management KW - common property KW - fisheries KW - forestry KW - grazing lands KW - sustainable development KW - water resources KW - wildlife AB - Hardin's Tragedy of the Commons model predicts the eventual overexploitation or degradation of all resources used in common. Given this unambiguous prediction, a surprising number of cases exist in which users have been able to restrict access to the resource and establish rules among themselves for its sustainable use. To assess the evidence, we first define common-property resources and present a taxonomy of property-rights regimes in which such resources may be held. Evidence accumulated over the last twenty-two years indicates that private, state, andcommunal property are all potentially viable resource management options. A more complete theory than Hardin's should incorporate institutional arrangements and cultural factors to provide for better analysis and prediction. (author) VL - 18 UR - http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00889070 IS - 1 JO - The Tragedy of the Commons ER - TY - JOUR T1 - Tree crop based agroforestry in Nigeria: A checklist of crops intercropped with cocoa JF - Agroforestry Systems Y1 - 1990 A1 - M. A. O. Oladokun KW - agroforestry KW - cocoa belt KW - crop combination KW - food crops KW - medicinal plants KW - tree crops AB - A survey of cocoa farmers in Bendel, Ogun, Ondo and Oyo States of Nigeria, carried out in 1985, showed that almost all the farmers intercropped other crops with cocoa. The intercrops included food crops such as plantain (92.3), cocoyam (85.7%), cassava (51.3%), yam (41.3%), maize (38.9%), melon (31.4%), cowpea (28.6%) and pineapple (26.0%) and tree crops such as oil palm (71.5%), kola (67.3%), coffee (41.0%), coconut (7.9%) and citrus (7.2%). Other crops are ewe-iran (Sarcophrynium brachystachys) and ewe-gbodogi (Megaphrynium macrostachyum) (45.2%), african walnut (Tetracarpidium conophorum) (42.2%), aligator pepper (Aframomum melegueta) (31.6%), and iyere (Piper guinense) (20.2%). Guava, mango, pawpaw and vegetables such as celosia, okra and solanum occur in cocoa plots at rather low frequencies. As many as six or more other crops can be intercropped with cocoa at the same time. VL - 11 UR - https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00045901 IS - 3 U1 - Agroforest Syst JO - Tree crop based agroforestry in Nigeria ER - TY - BOOK T1 - The tropical forestry action plan: What progress? Y1 - 1990 A1 - Marcus Colchester A1 - Larry Lohmann KW - forest policy KW - rainforests AB - This book discusses the results of a review of the implementation and success of the Tropical Forestry action Plan since it was introduced in 1985 as the answer to the tropical deforestation problem. This review details nine of the currently used plans in terms of their goals and how well they have met these goals. PB - World Rainforest Movement and the Ecologist CY - Penang, Malaysia SN - 967-99987-2-X UR - http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23738011 ER - TY - MPCT T1 - To coexist: Diversity and development Y1 - 1989 A1 - Robert Pierce KW - agroforestry KW - biodiversity KW - logging KW - pastoralism KW - water resources AB - This is a videotape of case studies of sustainable development in Rwanda (mountain gorilla tourism), Thailand, Peru, the Amazon, and the Maasai in Kenya in which the local people participated in an effort to retain biodiversity in their region while working with USAID development projects. PB - USAID CY - Washington, DC U2 - Smithsonian Institution JO - To coexist ER - TY - BOOK T1 - Traditional ecological knowledge: A collection of essays T2 - IUCN conservation library Y1 - 1989 ED - R. E. (Robert Earle) Johannes KW - ecology KW - natural conservation AB -

IUCN is pleased to publish this collection of articles which originate from the working group on Traditional Ecological Knowledge of our Commission on Ecology. This book does not presume to be an authoritative review of the state of knowledge in the field. It is, rather, a collection of free essays which offer fascinating glimpses of the deep understanding and practice of "ecology" displayed by traditional societies on different continents. (editor)

Contains the following essays:

JF - IUCN conservation library PB - IUCN CY - Gland [Switzerland]; Cambridge SN - 2-88032-998-1 UR - http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/729639587 N1 - November 1989 Includes bibliographical references (p. 71-77) JO - Traditional ecological knowledge ER - TY - JOUR T1 - Technology transfer: Institutions, models, and impacts on agriculture and rural life in the developing world JF - Agriculture and Human Values Y1 - 1988 A1 - Joseph J. Molnar A1 - Curtis M. Jolly KW - community development KW - farming systems KW - rural development KW - technology transfer KW - transfer effort AB - Technology transfer is a multi-level process of communication involving a variety of senders and receivers of ideas and materials. As a response to market failure, or as an effort to accelerate market-driven social change, technology transfer may combine public and private aparatus or rely solely on public institutional mechanisms to identify, develop, and deliver innovations and information. Technology transfer institutions include universities, government ministries, research institutes, and what may be termed the 'project sector'. Four farm- and village-level change models are considered: traditional community development, adoption-diffusion, training and Visit Extension, and Farming Systems Research. The challenges to technology transfer efforts center on developing indigenous capacity to generate and adapt agricultural technology to local conditions. This is the primary objective of technology transfer in agriculture and the basis for advancing rural development. VL - 5 UR - http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02217173 IS - 1-2 N1 - This article from Agriculture and Human Values, 5 (1-2) listed independently. U1 - Agric Hum Values JO - Technology transfer ER - TY - JOUR T1 - Traditional agroforestry system in the Cordilleras (Ifugao) JF - Likasyaman (Technology Series) Y1 - 1988 A1 - Guillermo Felipe KW - Acacia KW - coffee KW - traditional agroforestry AB - This short summary of a traditional agroforestry setup in Ifugao, Philippines, discusses qualitatively the advantages of using an indigenous shade tree with coffee for enhanced production. Coffee, introduced during Spanish occupation, is grown under raintree (Samanea caman) along with rattan vines (Calamus merrillii) which is in demand locally for the cottage industry. There is little to no exogenous technological influence in this system (except the introduction of coffee) because there is no pruning, fertilization or improved plant varieties of coffee. The author considers the system sustainable based on nutrient and water cycling advantages of raintree (a nitrogen fixer) particularly soil nutrient additions of litter fall. A brief ecological and socioeconomic descriptions of the region are included. ER - TY - BOOK T1 - Traditional knowledge and renewable resource management in northern regions T2 - Occasional publication (Boreal Institute for Northern Studies); no. 23 Y1 - 1988 ED - Milton M. R. Freeman ED - Ludwig N. Carbyn KW - American Indians KW - Arctic regions KW - Eskimos KW - First Peoples KW - fisheries KW - Inuit KW - Native Americans KW - resource management AB -

Contains following papers:

JF - Occasional publication (Boreal Institute for Northern Studies); no. 23 PB - IUCN Commission on Ecology and the Canadian Circumpolar Institute, Boreal Institute for Northern Studies CY - Edmonton, AB, Canada SN - 978-0-919058-68-2 UR - http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/658935111 N1 - A joint publication of the IUCN Commission on Ecology and the Boreal Institute for Northern Studies ER - TY - RPRT T1 - Trees and pastoralists: The case of the Pokot and Turkana Y1 - 1988 A1 - Edmund G. C. Barrow KW - soil conservation AB -

Pastoral people in arid and semi-arid lands have, with time, developed rational sustainable land use systems based on the mobility of their livestock herds, and making optimal use of the land both geographically and ecologically. Historically such systems were self-regulating with periodic famines and disease outbreaks acting as controls. These self-regulating mechanisms are for various reasons, no longer allowed full play with resulting deterioration in land-use patterns, particularly in the settlement zones.

Few people perceive the use of their land-use strategies as a soil and water conservation benefit, yet in preserving their land and vegetation this is exactly what it is. Likewise planners in soil and water conservation, in many cases, do not see the value of such strategies, preferring the use of structures in curing the problem rather than preventing the disease.

This paper attempts, in some small way to highlight some of the traditional values that the Pokot and Turkana have which could be of intrinsic value to soil and water conservation, if used sensibly in the dry areas. It further attempts to identify methods of incorporating such traditional values into soil and water conservation practice for arid and semi-arid lands. (author)

JF - Social Forestry Network Papers 6b PB - Overseas Development Institute (ODI) CY - London UR - https://odi.org/en/publications/trees-and-pastoralists-the-case-of-the-pokot-and-turkana/ N1 -

This paper argued that the traditional values and practices of the semi-nomadic Pokot and Turkana peoples of Kenya provided an excellent basis for institutional efforts to sustain the pastoralists' semi-arid environments. Both groups managed pasture lands adaptively and co-operatively, under the leadership of elders. Trees along water courses were under individual tenure, highly valued and rarely cut, though people did not plant trees and failed to see the connection between seedlings and productive mature trees. The author argued that the many inappropriate and damaging interventions in the area, for instance intensification of land use, could be usefully replaced by developments that start with what people know, build on indigenous strategies and strengthen local rights of tenure.

U5 - 24 pp. JO - Trees and pastoralists ER - TY - Generic T1 - Trees on small farms: Multipurpose tree species research for the arid and semi-arid tropics T2 - Proceedings of the Network Workshop of the Forestry/Fuelwood Research and Development (F/FRED) Project held 16-19 November 1987, Karachi, Pakistan Y1 - 1988 ED - David A. Taylor ED - Lee Medema KW - agroforestry KW - fuelwood AB - In recognition of the rapid depletion of tropical forest resources and the increased scarcity of fuelwood and other tree products, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) designed and funded the Forestry/Fuelwood Research and Development Project. F/FRED provides a network through which scientists exchange research plans, methods and results on the production and use of trees to meet the needs of small-scale farmers in Asia. These fast-growing, high-yielding trees are appropriately termed multipurpose tree species (MPTS). To date, network trials have been established on 16 sites in the humid and semi-humid tropics. Participants are 10 Asian scientists from Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand. JF - Proceedings of the Network Workshop of the Forestry/Fuelwood Research and Development (F/FRED) Project held 16-19 November 1987, Karachi, Pakistan PB - Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development CY - Arlington, VA U5 - 112 pp. JO - Trees on small farms ER - TY - CHAP T1 - Trees, people and the dry lands: The role of local knowledge T2 - Agroforestry development in Kenya: Proceedings of the Second Kenya National Seminar on Agroforestry Y1 - 1988 A1 - Edmund G. C. Barrow KW - participatory research AB - The importance of traditional knowledge as a tool in development is discussed in broad terms, its relevance to the change process and as to why it has not been fully utilized in the past. Pokot and Turkana transhumant silvo-pastoral systems are discussed in a broad land management perspective and then as they relate to individual tree species, their utilization and management. This is then briefly compared to the Sukuma (in Tanzania) agro-silvo-pastoral system. In all cases the people of the area display a rich and detailed local knowledge base as it relates to the environment and ecology. This comprises a detailed ethnobotanical knowledge as it relates to species utilization and their management, which is then related to broad land management systems which, especially in Pokot and Turkana are both environmentally sound, ecologically viable and culturally acceptable. Why then are such systems and knowledge bases not utilized? This is then related to traditional conservatism and constraints pertaining to such lands. In realizing that the traditional base is not perfect, ways are discussed as to how the people and the knowledge base can be brought into the focus of development and change, particularly in the silvo-pastoral context. This is based on a participatory sharing extension approach which identifies potential and constraints in the traditional base combined with problem identification and solution finding. The example of the Turkana Rural Development Programme's forestry sector is used to show how this can be achieved (or at least partly so) in a large district such as Turkana whose people are mobile and widely spaced. It is discussed in terms of extension approaches used, feedback from such work and the impact of the work to date. It is likewise shown that such work can fit into current day development thinking as a means of relating the local knowledge base to the present day. The conclusion challenges researchers and developers alike in terms of giving a real and meaningful emphasis to the traditional database, of relating their work to it and keeping the focus of such work on the people who live in such areas. Such pastoral people do not compartmentalize their lives into discrete boxes as Research and Development tends to do. This is not possible especially in the arid and semi-arid lands and especially as relates to silvo-pastoralism. The threads are too interlinked. The basis for change and improvement lies with making the people of the area the focus, making them responsible for their environment through the use of the traditional knowledge base as a foundation stone for sustainable real development, as if people matter. (author) JF - Agroforestry development in Kenya: Proceedings of the Second Kenya National Seminar on Agroforestry PB - Institute of Forestry CY - Nairobi, Kenya N1 - Paper presented to Second Kenya National Seminar on Agroforestry U5 - 27 pp JO - Trees, people and the dry lands ER - TY - CHAP T1 - Tropical dry forests: The most endangered major tropical ecosystem T2 - Biodiversity Y1 - 1988 A1 - Daniel H. Janzen ED - E. O. Wilson ED - Frances M. Peter KW - biodiversity KW - dry forests KW - tropical forests AB - The most threatened of major tropical forest types is the tropical dry forest. They are threatened for many different reasons. The expensive land that is generally used for agricultural production is clear cut. This does very serious damage to the anticipated restoration of the site by conservationists who are working to stop the sellers. These sellers have much influence in local politics and will hold these positions well into the future. Fortunately, much of this cleared land could be properly restored if the proper seed sources are present. Properly manipulated, domestic animals may be our best hope in combatting the ever present threat of fire. These animals help to disperse seeds into the pastures and graze off of the grasses that would provide the fuel for the next dry season's grass fires. Restoration ecology is working to preserve these forests and maintain their rich biodiversity. The real well-being will rest in the hands of the policy makers. JF - Biodiversity PB - National Academy Press CY - Washington, DC SN - 0-309-03783-2; 978-0-309=03783-9 UR - http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=989&page=130 N1 - Chapter 14 JO - Tropical dry forests ER - TY - CHAP T1 - Traditional agroforestry practices of native and Ribereno farmers in the lowland Peruvian Amazon T2 - Agroforestry: Realities, possibilities and potentials Y1 - 1987 A1 - Christine Padoch A1 - Wil de Jong ED - Henry L. Gholz KW - barbasco KW - Bora Indians KW - caimito KW - cashews KW - charcoal KW - coca KW - corn KW - economics KW - fiber KW - mamey KW - manioc KW - medicine KW - palms KW - papayas KW - Peru KW - pichirina KW - pineapple KW - plantains KW - pomarosa KW - Riberenos KW - rifari KW - toronja KW - tropical cedar KW - umair KW - uvilla KW - zapote AB - Recent research on traditional agriculture in the Peruvian Amazon indicates that agroforestry practices are widespread and extremely varied. This article describes five agroforestry systems found in the vicinity of Iquitos, Peru. Although all begin as shifting cultivation fields, they differ greatly in species composition and richness, in intensity and length of management, in economic orientation, and in adaptation to particular ecological conditions. Four of the five systems are found in mestizo communities of the region. The information presented shows that basic traditional swidden-fallow agroforestry practices are adaptable to varying environmental and economic situations (author). JF - Agroforestry: Realities, possibilities and potentials PB - Martin Nijhoff Publishers in cooperation with ICRAF; distributors for the U.S. and Canada, Kluwer Academic Publishers CY - Dordrecht, Netherlands SN - 90-247-3590-4 UR - http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/16352684 ER - TY - JOUR T1 - Tropical rain forest management: A status report JF - Unasylva Y1 - 1987 A1 - R. Schmidt KW - rainforests KW - regeneration KW - sustainable management AB - The potential for sustained management of natural forests in the humid tropics continues to be a subject of concern and uncertainty among tropical foresters. In this article, adapted from a paper presented at the Unesco-IVIC International Workshop on Rain Forest Regeneration and Management, Guri, Venezuela, in November 1986, the author examines a series of recent FAO studies and projects reports that indicate that the productive management of many humid lowland forests is both technically feasible and economically viable. VL - 39 UR - http://www.fao.org/docrep/s2850e/s2850e02.htm#tropical%20rain%20forest%20management IS - 156 JO - Tropical rain forest management ER - TY - CHAP T1 - Traditional agroforestry in West Java: The pekarangan (homegarden) and kebun-talun (annual-perennial rotation) cropping systems T2 - Traditional agriculture in southeast Asia: A human ecology perspective Y1 - 1986 A1 - Linda Christanty A1 - Oekan S. Abdoellah A1 - Gerald G. Marten A1 - Johan Iskandar ED - Gerald G. Marten KW - agriculture KW - agroforestry KW - animals KW - crop rotation KW - ecology KW - farming KW - home gardens KW - Indonesia KW - intercropping KW - Java KW - Javanese KW - kebun-talun KW - pekarangan KW - rice KW - tree crops KW - trees KW - upland farming AB - This chapter looks at the role of kebun-talun and pekarangan in the Javanese landscape. Kebun-talun (rotation system between mixed garden and tree plantation) is a traditional system that increases overall production and serves multiple functions by sequentially combining agricultural crops with tree crops. Pekarangan (homegarden intercropping system) is a traditional system located in the villages that provides both subsistence and commercial products and serves multiple functions by simultaneously combining agricultural crops with tree crops and animals. JF - Traditional agriculture in southeast Asia: A human ecology perspective PB - Westview Press CY - Boulder, CO SN - 0-8133-7026-4 UR - http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12975293 JO - Traditional agroforestry in West Java ER - TY - JOUR T1 - The tree that purifies water: Cultivating multipurpose Moringaceae in the Sudan JF - Unasylva (FAO) Y1 - 1986 A1 - Samia Al Azharia Jahn A1 - Hassan A. Musnad A1 - Heinz Burgstaller KW - agroforestry KW - fodder KW - fuelwood KW - medicinal plants KW - oil KW - ornamental trees KW - spices AB - Suspensions of seed powder from trees and shrubs of the Moringaceae family can effectively be used to clarify water, even turbid water from the River Nile. But species from this family have a variety of other uses as well. Although they show considerable promise for multipurpose use in the tropical belt, little is known about how to cultivate the various species. This article examines different methods of cultivation appropriate to different species -- often with surprising results. VL - 38 UR - http://www.fao.org/docrep/r7750e/r7750e04.htm#the%20tree%20that%20purifies%20water:%20cultivating%20multipurpose%20moringaceae%20in%20the%20sudan IS - 152 JO - The tree that purifies water ER - TY - JOUR T1 - Traditional agroforestry, parcel management, and social forestry development in a pioneer agricultural community: The case of Jala-jala, Rizal, Philippines JF - Agroforestry Systems Y1 - 1985 A1 - Harold Olofson KW - agroforestry KW - farm fragmentation KW - farm management KW - hillside agriculture KW - Philippines KW - rapid rural appraisal KW - social forestry AB - This paper overviews a variety of traditional agroforestry systems found in a small community of Filipino migrant farmers. Background information provides context, and then case studies of seven farmers are offered to illustrate the functions which their agroforestries fulfill in a situation of parcellization of farm-holdings into both level and sloping fields. The implications of the brief portraits presented for further research and development and for the acceptability of a social forestry program now going on in the community are suggested. VL - 3 UR - https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00055715 IS - 4 U1 - Agroforest Syst JO - Traditional agroforestry, parcel management, and social forestry development in a pioneer agricultural community ER - TY - JOUR T1 - The Talun-Kebun system, a modified shifting cultivation, in West Java JF - The Environmentalist Y1 - 1984 A1 - Otto Soemarwoto KW - Java KW - shifting cultivation AB -

The talun is a man-made forest consisting of a mixture of economic tree species, usually with an undergrowth of a mixture of annual plants. It has a multistorey structure and gives good protection to the soil against the erosive forces of rain, as well as being a genetic resource. The talun is privately owned and on the average a family has 1 to 2 hectares.

In the talun a shifting cultivation is practised by rotating a garden, called the kebun, which is planted with a mixture of cash crops. The cycle of the rotation is about 8 years. The opening for the kebun is created by harvesting the trees and bamboo by clear or selective cutting and heavy pruning. Hence, the talun-kebun system is essentially shifting cultivation in a man-made forest. Because of the high economic returns, it is capable of carrying a high population density on a sustainable basis.

VL - 4, Supplement 7 UR - http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0251108884904662 U1 - The Environmentalist ER - TY - JOUR T1 - Tropical forest architectural analysis as applied to agroforests in the humid tropics: The example of traditional village-agroforests in West Java JF - Agroforestry Systems Y1 - 1983 A1 - G. Michon A1 - J. Bompard A1 - P. Hecketsweiler A1 - C. Ducatillion KW - architectural analysis KW - Java KW - traditional agroforestry KW - tropical forests AB -

The features of the tropical forest are found in Sundanese village-gardens. They are rich in plant species, a layered structure of the vegetation, existing patchwork and succession of sylvigenetic phases (from pioneer to homeostatic phase). These traditional agroforests reflect the surrounding forest ecosystem, simplifying the features.

The architectural method of tropical forest analysis is applied to Sundanese agroforests, but here each plant is both a structural element of the ecosystem and a producing element of the agricultural landscape. Such structural analysis could represent one aspect of an integral analysis of complex agroforestry systems.

VL - 1 UR - https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00596353 IS - 2 N1 - Online version is a shortened and revised version of Bompard J, Ducatillion C, Hecketsweiler P Michon G, (1980) A traditional agricultural system: Village-forest-gardens in West Java. University Sc. Montpellier, France. Rapp. DEA. 101 p. + annex. U1 - Agroforest Syst JO - Tropical forest architectural analysis as applied to agroforests in the humid tropics ER - TY - JOUR T1 - Tree gardening and taungya on Java: Examples of agroforestry techniques in the humid tropics JF - Agroforestry Systems Y1 - 1982 A1 - K. F. Wiersum KW - agroforestry systems KW - gardening KW - Indonesia KW - Java KW - land ownership KW - private land KW - state forest KW - young tree AB - Agroforestry is a general concept for a land management system combining trees and agricultural crops. For application, various specific techniques can be chosen. Each of these techniques is adjusted to a specific set of environmental as well as socio-economic factors. Agroforestry cultivators or managers belonging to varying social strata and institutional groupings may practice different forms of agroforestry, even within the same general region. This is demonstrated on the basis of two contrasting types of agroforestry which are found on the Indonesian island of Java. Tree gardening or the cultivation of a wide variety of crops in a multiple-storeyed agroforestry system is an indegenous practice on private lands, while taungya or the intercropping of young tree plantations with staple crops is practiced on state forest lands. Both systems are described as to their management characteristics, past development as well as possibilities and constraints for further development. These two practices are then compared as to various attributes, like producer group, production purpose, area of cultivation, land ownership situation, structural organization of crop combinations, possibilities for improved cultivation techniques, and suitability for application in rural development for specific target groups. VL - 1 UR - https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00044329 IS - 1 U1 - Agroforest Syst JO - Tree gardening and taungya on Java ER - TY - CONF T1 - Traditional agro-forestry practices in arid zone of Rajasthan T2 - Paper presented at the Summer Institute on Agro-Forestry in Arid and Semi-Arid Zones, 15th June to 14th July, 1981 Y1 - 1981 A1 - S. P. Malhotra KW - Bordi KW - community forestry KW - fuelwood KW - Khejri AB -

In this paper the author discusses the agroforestry practices in different agro-climatic zones in Rajashthan. Six benefits were listed for the reason agroforestry techniques were needed:

  1. meeting fuel requirements,
  2. fencing materials,
  3. construction of lodging,
  4. fodder,
  5. food for human consumption, and
  6. protection against soil erosion and green manure.

The author then discusses in detail the types of trees used to meet the communities specific needs, in particular the Bordi and Khehri species.

JF - Paper presented at the Summer Institute on Agro-Forestry in Arid and Semi-Arid Zones, 15th June to 14th July, 1981 PB - Central Arid Zone Research Institute CY - Jodhpur, India UR - http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10369344 U3 - Summer Institute on Agro-forestry in Arid and Semi-arid Zones U5 - 7 pp. ER - TY - CONF T1 - Tree and shrub species for agroforestry systems in arid and semi arid regions T2 - Summer Institute on Agro-forestry in Arid and Semi-arid Zones Y1 - 1981 A1 - H. S. Mann KW - agroforestry KW - fuelwood AB -

Lists of trees, where they grow and what they are used for.

In the tropics, uncertain supplies and increasing costs of feed, fertilizer and food coupled with projected population increases are giving the leguminous trees, whose foliage is browsed by animals, a status they have never enjoyed previously.

Trees and shrubs play a dual role in the forage supply, serving both as shade for grass and as forage themselves. In dry tropics, in particular, shrubs and trees are precious for without them stock raising would probably be impossible as pasture grasses die when upper soil layers lose their moisture, but tree roots exploit deep underground moisture and they continue to flourish. (author)

JF - Summer Institute on Agro-forestry in Arid and Semi-arid Zones PB - Central Arid Zone Research Institute CY - Jodhpur, India VL - 1 UR - http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10369344 N1 - Lecture delivered at Agroforestry in Arid and Semi-arid Zones June 15–July 14, 1981 U3 - Summer Institute on Agro-forestry in Arid and Semi-arid Zones U5 - 10 pp. ER - TY - CONF T1 - A traditional agro-system in the Amazon region of Colombia T2 - Tropical Ecology and Development: Proceedings of the Vth International Symposium of Tropical Ecology Y1 - 1980 A1 - Michael J. Eden KW - Columbia KW - rainforests AB - A study has been made in Rain forest shifting cultivation, as practiced by Andoke and Witoto Indians in the Caqueta basin of the Colombian Amazonia. Ecological aspects of cultivation have been investigated at both the individual field level and in terms of field/forest relationships. In general, the indigenous cultivation system functions in a stable manner. At the individual field level, this is achieved through a relatively specialized response to adverse environmental conditions. A particular feature of the system is its agri-silvicultural status. Field/forest relationships are equally critical to the stability of the system. Lengthy forest fallowing is practiced between cultivations, reflecting the dispersed nature of indigenous settlements. This contrasts with the more damaging impact of equally small-scale, but more concentrated, colonist agriculture in adjacent areas. The development implications of indigenous farming methods are considered. JF - Tropical Ecology and Development: Proceedings of the Vth International Symposium of Tropical Ecology PB - International Society of Tropical Ecology CY - Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia UR - http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7942294 U3 - Vth International Symposium of Tropical Ecology ER - TY - JOUR T1 - Traditional marine conservation methods in Oceania and their demise JF - Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics Y1 - 1978 A1 - R. E. Johannes KW - aquaculture KW - aquatic resources KW - fish KW - Melanesia AB - This paper is an account of the rise and decline of a millenia-old system of controlled exploitation of marine resources that incorporates a wisdom Westerners are only now beginning to appreciate after having brought about its widespread decay. (author) VL - 9 UR - http://www.jstor.org/stable/2096753 IS - 1 U1 - Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics U5 - 16 pp. ER - TY - BOOK T1 - Tree crops: A permanent agriculture T2 - Harper Colophon books; CN 610 Y1 - 1978 A1 - J. Russell Smith KW - agroforestry KW - nuts KW - tree crops AB - Introduction only: "A Practical Visionary". This is an introduction to J. Russell Smith's "Tree Crops." In it Wendell Berry describes his love of Smith's vision. The idea of perennial vs. annual crops and two-story agriculture are included in the plan. Berry sees Smith's plan as a way to reduce erosion and increase productivity while maintaining small-scale farming. JF - Harper Colophon books; CN 610 PB - Island Press; Harper & Row CY - Wasington, DC; New York UR - http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/300615 JO - Tree crops ER - TY - CHAP T1 - The types of utilization T2 - Tropical forest ecosystems: A state-of-knowledge report prepared by UNESCO/UNEP/FAO Y1 - 1978 A1 - UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) A1 - UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) A1 - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) KW - agroforestry KW - logging KW - shifting cultivation AB - The purpose of this chapter is to examine different types of utilization of the forest ecosystems of the humid tropics, but excluding complete transformation to agro-ecosystems. Improved grassland will be discussed chiefly to demonstrate that it is possible to simplify the forest ecosystem to a certain degree, frequently in connection with tree crops, but without the intention of suggesting a research program. The farming or cropping of large wild mammals will not be discussed but will be mentioned in connection with wildlife management. Harvesting and product transport and the socio-economic aspects of development schemes (though their direct or indirect influence on utilization is considerable) will not be considered except for the necessity of research. JF - Tropical forest ecosystems: A state-of-knowledge report prepared by UNESCO/UNEP/FAO T3 - Natural Resources Research no. 14 PB - UNESCO CY - Paris SN - 92-3-101507-9 UR - http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4745455 ER - TY - JOUR T1 - The tropical rain forest JF - Scientific American Y1 - 1973 A1 - Paul W. Richards KW - Amazon KW - Borneo KW - homeostatic mechanisms KW - mineral-transport system KW - rainforests KW - swiddens KW - tropical forests AB -

This paper addresses the scarcity of nutrients. This effects the food crops, rainforest, and the rest if the ecosystem. The recycling of the minerals is very rapid. Fungi and the decomposition of rocks help in adding nutrients to the ground. The primary rainforest is surviving, but barely.

The idea of a substitute or secondary forest is what is to replace the primary forest. These are phases to the growth of the secondary forest. These are grasses, including herbaceous dicotyledons, vines, shrubs, etc. Next is trees, soft-wooded, fast-growing, and short lived. After that is a cycle, the primary forest begins to form. In order for the primary forest to take shape, the secondary forest must be undistributed.

VL - 229 UR - http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1273-58 IS - 6 ER - TY - BOOK T1 - The Turkuna [sic Tukuna] T2 - University of California publications; American archaeology and ethnology 45 Y1 - 1952 A1 - Curt Nimuendajú KW - aquatic resources KW - subsistence agriculture KW - Ticuna KW - Tucuna Indians KW - Tukúna KW - Turkana AB - Agriculture and fishing are the principle sources of Turkuna economy. The slash and burn faming is usually done by a communal work party of men. The four crops of major importance are bitter manioc, sweet manioc, maize, and yam. Fishing is the principal occupation of the men, who are taught to fish at an early age. Most boys can provide the household with the fish required at age 9 or 10. JF - University of California publications; American archaeology and ethnology 45 PB - University of California Press CY - Berkeley, CA N1 - This record is for pages 21-24 "Subsistence" which discusses agriculture and fishing ER -